The Who, What, Where, When and Sometimes, Why.

Risk Factors & Risk Reduction References

  1. National Cancer Institute. The Breast Cancer Risk Assessment Tool. https://bcrisktool.cancer.gov/about.html, 2022.
  2. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer- SEER incidence rates by age at diagnosis, 2016-2020, by sex, observed SEER incidence rate, all races/ethnicity. Accessed on April 25, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  3. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer- Comparison of cancer risk, by sex, all races/ethnicities, risk of being diagnosed with cancer (2017-2019) from age 30 over next 10 years. Accessed on April 26, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  4. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer- Comparison of cancer risk, by sex, all races/ethnicities, risk of being diagnosed with cancer (2017-2019) from age 70 over next 10 years. Accessed on April 26, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  5. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer- Comparison of cancer risk, by sex, all races/ethnicities, risk of being diagnosed with cancer (2017-2019), from age 0 over remaining life. Accessed on April 26, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  6. American Cancer Society. Breast Cancer Facts and Figures 2022-2024. Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society, 2022.
  7. National Cancer Institute. Cancer Stat Facts: Female breast cancer. https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/breast.html, 2023.
  8. Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al. (editors). Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2018. Table 1.11: Median age of cancer patients at diagnosis, 2014-2018, by primary cancer site, race and sex. National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, MD. Accessed on October 7, 2021. https://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2018/, 2021.
  9. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast Cancer – SEER incidence rates by age at diagnosis, 2016-2020, by sex, observed SEER incidence rate, all races/ethnicities. Accessed on April 26, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  10. Lambe M, Hsieh C, Trichopoulos D, Ekbom A, Pavia M, Adami HO. Transient increase in the risk of breast cancer after giving birth. N Engl J Med. 331(1):5-9, 1994.
  11. Rosner B, Colditz GA and Willett WC. Reproductive risk factors in a prospective study of breast cancer: the Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 139: 819-835, 1994.
  12. Colditz GA and Rosner B. Cumulative risk of breast cancer to age 70 years according to risk factor status: data from the Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 152: 950-64, 2000.
  13. Willett WC, Tamimi R, Hankinson SE, Hazra A, Eliassen AH, Colditz GA. Chapter 18: Nongenetic Factors in the Causation of Breast Cancer, in Harris JR, Lippman ME, Morrow M, Osborne CK. Diseases of the Breast, 5th edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2014.
  14. Mullooly M, Khodr ZG, Dallal CM, et al. Epidemiologic risk factors for in situ and invasive breast cancers among postmenopausal women in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 186(12):1329-1340, 2017.
  15. Nichols HB, Schoemaker MJ, Cai J, et al. Breast cancer risk after recent childbirth: a pooled analysis of 15 prospective studies. Ann Intern Med. 170(1):22-30, 2019.
  16. John EM, Phipps AI, Hines LM, et al. Menstrual and reproductive characteristics and breast cancer risk by hormone receptor status and ethnicity: The Breast Cancer Etiology in Minorities study. Int J Cancer. 147(7):1808-1822, 2020.
  17. Fortner RT, Sisti J, Chai B, et al. Parity, breastfeeding, and breast cancer risk by hormone receptor status and molecular phenotype: results from the Nurses’ Health Studies. Breast Cancer Res. 21(1):40, 2019.
  18. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Menarche, menopause, and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis, including 118 964 women with breast cancer from 117 epidemiological studies. Lancet Oncol. 13(11):1141-51, 2012.
  19. Ritte R, Tikk K, Lukanova A, et al. Reproductive factors and risk of hormone receptor positive and negative breast cancer: a cohort study. BMC Cancer. 13:584, 2013.
  20. Li K, Anderson G, Viallon V, et al. Risk prediction for estrogen receptor-specific breast cancers in two large prospective cohorts. Breast Cancer Res. 20(1):147, 2018.
  21. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK, et al. for the Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group. Circulating sex hormones and breast cancer risk factors in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of 13 studies. Br J Cancer. 105(5):709-22, 2011.
  22. Brinton LA, Smith L, Gierach GL, et al. Breast cancer risk in older women: results from the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Cancer Causes Control. 25(7):843-57, 2014.
  23. Hamajima N, Hirose K, Tajima K, et al. for the Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Alcohol, tobacco and breast cancer—collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 58,515 women with breast cancer and 95,067 women without the disease. Br J Cancer. 87(11):1234-45, 2002.
  24. Fuchs CS, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. Alcohol consumption and mortality among women. N Engl J Med. 332(19):1245-50, 1995.
  25. Dam MK, Hvidtfeldt UA, Tjønneland A, Overvad K, Grønbæk M, Tolstrup JS. Five year change in alcohol intake and risk of breast cancer and coronary heart disease among postmenopausal women: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 353:i2314, 2016.
  26. Rock CL, Thomson C, Gansler T, et al. American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention. CA Cancer J Clin. 70(4):245-271, 2020.
  27. Ge W, Clendenen TV, Afanasyeva Y, et al. Circulating anti-Müllerian hormone and breast cancer risk: A study in ten prospective cohorts. Int J Cancer. 142(11):2215-2226, 2018.
  28. Nichols HB, Baird DD, Stanczyk FZ, et al. Anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations in premenopausal women and breast cancer risk. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 8(6):528-34, 2015.
  29. Eliassen AH, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Rosner B, Hankinson SE. Plasma anti-Müllerian hormone concentrations and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women in the Nurses’ Health Studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 25(5):854-60, 2016.
  30. Verdiesen RMG, van Gils CH, van der Schouw YT, Onland-Moret NC. Anti-Müllerian hormone levels and risk of cancer: A systematic review. Maturitas. 135:53-67, 2020.
  31. Broer SL, Eijkemans MJ, Scheffer GJ, et al. Anti-mullerian hormone predicts menopause: a long-term follow-up study in normoovulatory women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 96(8):2532-9, 2011.
  32. Struewing JP, Hartge P, Wacholder S, et al. The risk of cancer associated with specific mutations of BRCA1 and BRCA2 among Ashkenazi Jews. N Engl J Med. 336: 1401-8, 1997.
  33. Chen S, Parmigiani G. Meta-analysis of BRCA1 and BRCA2 penetrance. J Clin Oncol. 25(11):1329-33, 2007.
  34. Antoniou AC, Cunningham AP, Peto J, et al. The BOADICEA model of genetic susceptibility to breast and ovarian cancers: updates and extensions. Br J Cancer. 98(8):1457-66, 2008.
  35. Kuchenbaecker KB, Hopper JL, Barnes DR, et al. Risks of breast, ovarian, and contralateral breast cancer for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. JAMA. 317(23):2402-2416, 2017.
  36. Engel C, Fischer C, Zachariae S, et al. for the German Consortium for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (GC-HBOC). Breast cancer risk in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers and noncarriers under prospective intensified surveillance. Int J Cancer. 146(4):999-1009, 2020.
  37. National Cancer Institute. BRCA1 and BRCA2: cancer risks and management (PDQ®) – health professional version. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/genetics/brca-genes-hp-pdq#_589, 2023.
  38. National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN). NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: Genetic/familial high-risk assessment—breast, ovarian and pancreatic cancer. Version 2.2023. http://www.nccn.org, 2023.
  39. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer risk from birth over time, 2017-2019, by sex, all races, risk of being diagnosed with cancer. Accessed on October 17, 2022. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2022.
  40. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast Cancer – Recent trends in SEER age-adjusted incidence rates, 2000-2020, by sex, observed SEER incidence rate, all races/ethnicities, all ages, all stages. Accessed on April 20, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  41. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53,297 women with breast cancer and 100,239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet. 347:1713-27, 1996.
  42. Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Manson JE, et al. A prospective study of oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 8:65-72, 1997.
  43. Gierisch JM, Coeytaux RR, Urrutia RP, et al. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast, cervical, colorectal, and endometrial cancers: a systematic review. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 22(11):1931-43, 2013.
  44. Mørch LS, Skovlund CW, Hannaford PC, Iversen L, Fielding S, Lidegaard Ø. Contemporary hormonal contraception and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 377(23):2228-2239, 2017.
  45. Burchardt NA, Eliassen AH, Shafrir AL, et al. Oral contraceptive use by formulation and breast cancer risk by subtype in the Nurses’ Health Study II: a prospective cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 226(6):821.e1-821.e26, 2022.
  46. Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG, et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 346:2025-32, 2002.
  47. Beral V, Doll R, Hermon C, et al. for the Collaborative Group on Epidemiological Studies of Ovarian Cancer. Ovarian cancer and oral contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of data from 45 epidemiological studies including 23,257 women with ovarian cancer and 87,303 controls. Lancet. 371(9609):303-14, 2008.
  48. Iversen L, Sivasubramaniam S, Lee AJ, Fielding S, Hannaford PC. Lifetime cancer risk and combined oral contraceptives: the Royal College of General Practitioners’ Oral Contraception Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 216(6):580.e1-580.e9, 2017.
  49. Skegg DC, Noonan EA, Paul C, et al. Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate and breast cancer. A pooled analysis of the World Health Organization and New Zealand studies. JAMA. 273(10):799-804, 1995.
  50. Li CI, Beaber EF, Chen Tang MT, Porter PL, Daling JR, Malone KE. Effect of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate on breast cancer risk among women 20 to 44 years of age. Cancer Res. 72(8):2028-35, 2012.
  51. Curtis KM, Marchbanks PA, Peterson HB. Neoplasia with use of intrauterine devices. Contraception. 75(6 Suppl):S60-9, 2007.
  52. Dinger J, Bardenheuer K, Minh TD. Levonorgestrel-releasing and copper intrauterine devices and the risk of breast cancer. Contraception. 2011 Mar;83(3):211-7, 2011.
  53. Jareid M, Thalabard JC, Aarflot M, Bøvelstad HM, Lund E, Braaten T. Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system use is associated with a decreased risk of ovarian and endometrial cancer, without increased risk of breast cancer. Results from the NOWAC Study. Gynecol Oncol. 149(1):127-132, 2018.
  54. Heikkinen S, Koskenvuo M, Malila N, Sarkeala T, Pukkala E, Pitkäniemi J. Use of exogenous hormones and the risk of breast cancer: results from self-reported survey data with validity assessment. Cancer Causes Control. 27(2):249-58, 2016.
  55. Ahlgren M, Melbye M, Wohlfahrt J, Sørensen TI. Growth patterns and the risk of breast cancer in women. N Engl J Med. 351(16):1619-26, 2004.
  56. Michels KB, Xue F. Role of birthweight in the etiology of breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 119(9):2007-25, 2006.
  57. Xue F, Michels KB. Intrauterine factors and risk of breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of current evidence. Lancet Oncol. 8(12):1088-100, 2007.
  58. Park SK, Kang D, McGlynn KA, et al. Intrauterine environments and breast cancer risk: meta-analysis and systematic review. Breast Cancer Res. 10(1):R8, 2008.
  59. Xue F, Rosner B, Eliassen H, Michels KB. Body fatness throughout the life course and the incidence of premenopausal breast cancer. Int J Epidemiol. 45(4):1103-1112, 2016.
  60. Zhou W, Chen X, Huang H, Liu S, Xie A, Lan L. Birth weight and incidence of breast cancer: dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Clin Breast Cancer. 20(5):e555-e568, 2020.
  61. Diaz-Santana MV, O’Brien KM, D’Aloisio AA, Regalado G, Sandler DP, Weinberg CR. Perinatal and postnatal exposures and risk of young-onset breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 22(1):88, 2020.
  62. Andersen ZJ, Baker JL, Bihrmann K, Vejborg I, Sørensen TI, Lynge E. Birth weight, childhood body mass index, and height in relation to mammographic density and breast cancer: a register-based cohort study. Breast Cancer Res. 16(1):R4, 2014.
  63. Yang TO, Reeves GK, Green J, et al. for the Million Women Study Collaborators. Birth weight and adult cancer incidence: large prospective study and meta-analysis. Ann Oncol. 25(9):1836-43, 2014.
  64. Akinyemiju TF, Tehranifar P, Flom JD, Liao Y, Wei Y, Terry MB. Early life growth, socioeconomic status, and mammographic breast density in an urban US birth cohort. Ann Epidemiol. 26(8):540-545, 2016.
  65. Tworoger SS, Eliassen AH, Missmer SA, et al. Birthweight and body size throughout life in relation to sex hormones and prolactin concentrations in premenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 15(12):2494-501, 2006.
  66. Spracklen CN, Wallace RB, Sealy-Jefferson S, et al. Birth weight and subsequent risk of cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. 38(5):538-43, 2014.
  67. Kaaks R, Rinaldi S, Key TJ, et al. Postmenopausal serum androgens, oestrogens and breast cancer risk: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Endocr Relat Cancer. 12(4):1071-82, 2005.
  68. Zhang X, Tworoger SS, Eliassen AH, Hankinson SE. Postmenopausal plasma sex hormone levels and breast cancer risk over 20 years of follow-up. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 137(3):883-92, 2013.
  69. Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group. Sex hormones and risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women: a collaborative reanalysis of individual participant data from seven prospective studies. Lancet Oncol. 14(10):1009-19, 2013.
  70. Arthur RS, Dannenberg AJ, Rohan TE. The association of prediagnostic circulating levels of cardiometabolic markers, testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin with risk of breast cancer among normal weight postmenopausal women in the UK Biobank. Int J Cancer. 149(1):42-57, 2021.
  71. Tworoger SS, Zhang X, Eliassen AH, et al. Inclusion of endogenous hormone levels in risk prediction models of postmenopausal breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 32(28):3111-7, 2014.
  72. Hüsing A, Fortner RT, Kühn T, et al. Added value of serum hormone measurements in risk prediction models for breast cancer for women not using exogenous hormones: results from the EPIC cohort. Clin Cancer Res. 23(15):4181-4189, 2017.
  73. Zhang X, Rice M, Tworoger SS, et al. Addition of a polygenic risk score, mammographic density, and endogenous hormones to existing breast cancer risk prediction models: A nested case-control study. PLoS Med. 15(9):e1002644, 2018.
  74. Huang Z, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, et al. Dual effects of weight and weight gain on breast cancer risk. JAMA. 278: 1407-11, 1997.
  75. Reeves GK, Pirie K, Beral V, Green J, Spencer E, Bull D. Cancer incidence and mortality in relation to body mass index in the Million Women Study: cohort study. BMJ. 335(7630):1134, 2007.
  76. Schoemaker MJ, Nichols HB, Wright LB, et al. for the Premenopausal Breast Cancer Collaborative Group. Association of body mass index and age with subsequent breast cancer risk in premenopausal women. JAMA Oncol. 4(11):e181771, 2018.
  77. Chan DSM, Abar L, Cariolou M, et al. World Cancer Research Fund International: Continuous Update Project-systematic literature review and meta-analysis of observational cohort studies on physical activity, sedentary behavior, adiposity, and weight change and breast cancer risk. Cancer Causes Control. 30(11):1183-1200, 2019.
  78. Park JW, Han K, Shin DW, et al. Obesity and breast cancer risk for pre- and postmenopausal women among over 6 million Korean women. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 185(2):495-506, 2021.
  79. van den Brandt PA, Ziegler RG, Wang M, et al. Body size and weight change over adulthood and risk of breast cancer by menopausal and hormone receptor status: a pooled analysis of 20 prospective cohort studies. Eur J Epidemiol. 36(1):37-55, 2021.
  80. Luo J, Chen X, Manson JE, et al. Birth weight, weight over the adult life course and risk of breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 147(1):65-75, 2020.
  81. Pierobon M, Frankenfeld CL. Obesity as a risk factor for triple-negative breast cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 137(1):307-14, 2013.
  82. Kerlikowske K, Gard CC, Tice JA, Ziv E, Cummings SR, Miglioretti DL for the Breast Cancer Surveillance Consortium. Risk factors that increase risk of estrogen receptor-positive and -negative breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 109(5): djw276, 2017.
  83. Hvidtfeldt UA, Gunter MJ, Lange T, et al. Quantifying mediating effects of endogenous estrogen and insulin in the relation between obesity, alcohol consumption, and breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 21(7):1203-12, 2012.
  84. Michels KB, Solomon CG, Hu FB, et al. for the Nurses’ Health Study. Type 2 diabetes and subsequent incidence of breast cancer in the Nurses’ Health Study. Diabetes Care. 26(6):1752-8, 2003.
  85. Boyle P, Boniol M, Koechlin A, et al. Diabetes and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer. 107(9):1608-17, 2012.
  86. De Bruijn KM, Arends LR, Hansen BE, Leeflang S, Ruiter R, van Eijck CH. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between diabetes mellitus and incidence and mortality in breast and colorectal cancer. Br J Surg. 100(11):1421-9, 2013.
  87. Maskarinec G, Jacobs S, Park SY, et al. Type II diabetes, obesity, and breast cancer risk: The Multiethnic Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 26(6):854-861, 2017.
  88. Eliassen AH, Tworoger SS, Mantzoros CS, Pollak MN, Hankinson SE. Circulating insulin and c-peptide levels and risk of breast cancer among predominately premenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 16(1):161-4, 2007.
  89. Eliassen AH, Colditz GA, Rosner B, et al. Adult weight change and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. JAMA. 296(2):193-201, 2006.
  90. Vrieling A, Buck K, Kaaks R, Chang-Claude J. Adult weight gain in relation to breast cancer risk by estrogen and progesterone receptor status: a meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 123(3):641-9, 2010.
  91. Emaus MJ, van Gils CH, Bakker MF, et al. Weight change in middle adulthood and breast cancer risk in the EPIC-PANACEA study. Int J Cancer. 135(12):2887-99, 2014.
  92. Rosner B, Eliassen AH, Toriola AT, et al. Short-term weight gain and breast cancer risk by hormone receptor classification among pre- and postmenopausal women. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 150(3):643-53, 2015.
  93. Luo J, Chen X, Manson JE,et al. Birth weight, weight over the adult life course and risk of breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 147(1):65-75, 2020.
  94. Ahn J, Schatzkin A, Lacey JV Jr, et al. Adiposity, adult weight change, and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Arch Intern Med. 167(19):2091-102, 2007.
  95. Chlebowski RT, Luo J, Anderson GL, et al. Weight loss and breast cancer incidence in postmenopausal women. Cancer. 125(2):205-212, 2019.
  96. Teras LR, Patel AV, Wang M, et al. Sustained weight loss and risk of breast cancer in women ≥50 years: a pooled analysis of prospective data. J Natl Cancer Inst. 112(9):djz226, 2020.
  97. Michels KB, Terry KL, Eliassen AH, Hankinson SE, Willett WC. Adult weight change and incidence of premenopausal breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 130(4):902-9, 2012.
  98. Kabat GC, Xue X, Kamensky V, Lane D, et al. Risk of breast, endometrial, colorectal, and renal cancers in postmenopausal women in association with a body shape index and other anthropometric measures. Cancer Causes Control. 26(2):219-29, 2015.
  99. Harding JL, Shaw JE, Anstey KJ, et al. Comparison of anthropometric measures as predictors of cancer incidence: A pooled collaborative analysis of 11 Australian cohorts. Int J Cancer. 137(7):1699-708, 2015.
  100. White AJ, Nichols HB, Bradshaw PT, Sandler DP. Overall and central adiposity and breast cancer risk in the Sister Study. Cancer. 2015 Oct 15;121(20):3700-8, 2015.
  101. Arthur RS, Dannenberg AJ, Kim M, Rohan TE. The association of body fat composition with risk of breast, endometrial, ovarian and colorectal cancers among normal weight participants in the UK Biobank. Br J Cancer. 124(9):1592-1605, 2021.
  102. Houghton SC, Eliassen H, Tamimi RM, Willett WC, Rosner BA, Hankinson SE. Central adiposity and subsequent risk of breast cancer by menopause status. J Natl Cancer Inst. 113(7):900-908, 2021.
  103. Caan BJ, Cespedes Feliciano EM, et al. Association of muscle and adiposity measured by computed tomography with survival in patients with nonmetastatic breast cancer. JAMA Oncol. 4(6):798-804, 2018.
  104. Iyengar NM, Arthur R, Manson JE, et al. Association of body fat and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women with normal body mass index: a secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial and observational study. JAMA Oncol. 5(2):155-163, 2019.
  105. American Cancer Society. Does body weight affect cancer risk? https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/diet-physical-activity/body-weight-and-cancer-risk/effects.html, 2020.
  106. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The health effects of overweight and obesity. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/effects/index.html, 2022.
  107. Zhang Y, Kiel DP, Kreger BE, et al. Bone mass and the risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 336:611-7, 1997.
  108. Zmuda JM, Cauley JA, Ljung BM, et al. Bone mass and breast cancer risk in older women: differences by stage at diagnosis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 336: 611-7, 2001.
  109. Chen Z, Arendell L, Aickin M, Cauley J, Lewis CE, Chlebowski R for the Women’s Health Initiative Program, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, US Department of Health and Human Services. Hip bone density predicts breast cancer risk independently of Gail score: results from the Women’s Health Initiative. Cancer. 113(5):907-15, 2008.
  110. Grenier D, Cooke AL, Lix L, Metge C, Lu H, Leslie WD. Bone mineral density and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 126(3):679-86, 2011.
  111. Qu X, Zhang X, Qin A, et al. Bone mineral density and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 138(1):261-71, 2013.
  112. National Osteoporosis Foundation. Evaluation of bone health/bone density testing. https://www.bonehealthandosteoporosis.org/patients/diagnosis-information/bone-density-examtesting/, 2022.
  113. Boyd NF, Guo H, Martin LJ, et al. Mammographic density and the risk and detection of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 356(3):227-36, 2007.
  114. Yaghjyan L, Colditz GA, Collins LC, et al. Mammographic breast density and subsequent risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women according to tumor characteristics. J Natl Cancer Inst. 103(15):1179-89, 2011.
  115. Gierach GL, Ichikawa L, Kerlikowske K, et al. Relationship between mammographic density and breast cancer death in the Breast Cancer Surveillance Consortium. J Natl Cancer Inst. 104(16):1218-27, 2012.
  116. van der Waal D, Verbeek ALM, Broeders MJM. Breast density and breast cancer-specific survival by detection mode. BMC Cancer. 18(1):386, 2018.
  117. Heindl F, Fasching PA, Hein A, et al. Mammographic density and prognosis in primary breast cancer patients. Breast. 59:51-57, 2021.
  118. Ho JM, Jafferjee N, Covarrubias GM, Ghesani M, Handler B. Dense breasts: a review of reporting legislation and available supplemental screening options. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 203(2):449-56, 2014.
  119. Sprague BL, Gangnon RE, Burt V, et al. Prevalence of mammographically dense breasts in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst. 106(10), 2014.
  120. Khan SA. Chapter 19: Management of Other High Risk Patients, in Harris JR, Lippman ME, Morrow M, Osborne CK. Diseases of the Breast, 5th edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2014.
  121. Bernier MO, Plu-Bureau G, Bossard N, et al. Breastfeeding and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of published studies. Hum Reprod Update. 6:374-86, 2000.
  122. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and breast feeding: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 47 epidemiological studies in 30 countries, including 50,302 women with breast cancer and 96,973 women without the disease. Lancet 20:187-95, 2002.
  123. Ma H, Bernstein L, Pike MC, Ursin G. Reproductive factors and breast cancer risk according to joint estrogen and progesterone receptor status: a meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Breast Cancer Res. 19;8(4):R43, 2006.
  124. Lambertini M, Santoro L, Del Mastro L, et al. Reproductive behaviors and risk of developing breast cancer according to tumor subtype: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Cancer Treat Rev. 49:65-76, 2016.
  125. Shinde SS, Forman MR, Kuerer HM, et al. Higher parity and shorter breastfeeding duration: association with triple-negative phenotype of breast cancer. Cancer. 116(21):4933-43, 2010.
  126. Palmer JR, Viscidi E, Troester MA, et al. Parity, lactation, and breast cancer subtypes in African American women: results from the AMBER Consortium. J Natl Cancer Inst. 106(10):dju237, 2014.
  127. Islami F, Liu Y, Jemal A, et al. Breastfeeding and breast cancer risk by receptor status–a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Oncol. 26(12):2398-407, 2015.
  128. Ma H, Ursin G, Xu X, et al. Reproductive factors and the risk of triple-negative breast cancer in white women and African-American women: a pooled analysis. Breast Cancer Res. 19(1):6, 2017.
  129. Gates MA, Rosner BA, Hecht JL, Tworoger SS. Risk factors for epithelial ovarian cancer by histologic subtype. Am J Epidemiol. 171(1):45-53, 2010.
  130. Feltner C, Weber RP, Stuebe A, Grodensky CA, Orr C, Viswanathan M. Breastfeeding programs and policies, breastfeeding uptake, and maternal health outcomes in developed countries [Internet]. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US), 2018.
  131. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office on Women’s Health. Breastfeeding. http://www.womenshealth.gov/breastfeeding/, 2021.
  132. Eliassen AH, Hankinson SE, Rosner B, Holmes MD, Willett WC. Physical activity and risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med. 170(19):1758-64, 2010.
  133. Hildebrand JS, Gapstur SM, Campbell PT, Gaudet MM, Patel AV. Recreational physical activity and leisure-time sitting in relation to postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 22(10):1906-12, 2013.
  134. Pizot C, Boniol M, Mullie P, et al. Physical activity, hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer risk: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur J Cancer. 52:138-54, 2016.
  135. Gong Z, Hong CC, Bandera EV, et al. Vigorous physical activity and risk of breast cancer in the African American breast cancer epidemiology and risk consortium. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 159(2):347-56, 2016.
  136. Neilson HK, Farris MS, Stone CR, Vaska MM, Brenner DR, Friedenreich CM. Moderate-vigorous recreational physical activity and breast cancer risk, stratified by menopause status: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Menopause. 24(3):322-344, 2017.
  137. Cifu G, Arem H. Adherence to lifestyle-related cancer prevention guidelines and breast cancer incidence and mortality. Ann Epidemiol. 28(11):767-773, 2018.
  138. Guo W, Fensom GK, Reeves GK, Key TJ. Physical activity and breast cancer risk: results from the UK Biobank prospective cohort. Br J Cancer. 122(5):726-732, 2020.
  139. Friedenreich CM, Woolcott CG, McTiernan A, et al. Alberta physical activity and breast cancer prevention trial: sex hormone changes in a year-long exercise intervention among postmenopausal women. J Clin Oncol. 28(9):1458-66, 2010.
  140. Smith AJ, Phipps WR, Thomas W, Schmitz KH, Kurzer MS. The effects of aerobic exercise on estrogen metabolism in healthy premenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 22:756-764, 2013.
  141. Schmitz KH, Williams NI, Kontos D, et al. Dose-response effects of aerobic exercise on estrogen among women at high risk for breast cancer: a randomized controlled trial. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 154(2):309-18, 2015.
  142. Swain CTV, Drummond AE, Boing L, et al. Linking physical activity to breast cancer via sex hormones, part 1: the effect of physical activity on sex steroid hormones. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 31(1):16-27, 2022.
  143. Winzer BM, Whiteman DC, Reeves MM, Paratz JD. Physical activity and cancer prevention: a systematic review of clinical trials. Cancer Causes Control. 22(6):811-26, 2011.
  144. Niehoff NM, White AJ, Sandler DP. Childhood and teenage physical activity and breast cancer risk. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 164(3):697-705, 2017.
  145. Boeke CE, Eliassen AH, Oh H, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Tamimi RM. Adolescent physical activity in relation to breast cancer risk. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 145(3):715-24, 2014.
  146. Holmes MD, Chen WY, Feskanich D, Kroenke CH, Colditz GA. Physical activity and survival after breast cancer diagnosis. JAMA. 293(20):2479-86, 2005.
  147. Holick CN, Newcomb PA, Trentham-Dietz A, et al. Physical activity and survival after diagnosis of invasive breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 17(2):379-86, 2008.
  148. Chen X, Lu W, Zheng W, et al. Exercise after diagnosis of breast cancer in association with survival. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 4(9):1409-18, 2011.
  149. Beasley JM, Kwan ML, Chen WY, et al. Meeting the physical activity guidelines and survival after breast cancer: findings from the after breast cancer pooling project. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 131(2):637-43, 2012.
  150. Schmid D, Leitzmann MF. Association between physical activity and mortality among breast cancer and colorectal cancer survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Oncol. 25(7):1293-311, 2014.
  151. Nechuta S, Chen WY, Cai H, et al. A pooled analysis of post-diagnosis lifestyle factors in association with late estrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer prognosis. Int J Cancer. 138(9):2088-97, 2016.
  152. Maliniak ML, Patel AV, McCullough ML, et al. Obesity, physical activity, and breast cancer survival among older breast cancer survivors in the Cancer Prevention Study-II Nutrition Cohort. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 167(1):133-145, 2018.
  153. Friedenreich CM, Stone CR, Cheung WY, Hayes SC. Physical activity and mortality in cancer survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JNCI Cancer Spectr. 4(1):pkz080, 2019.
  154. American Cancer Society. American Cancer Society Guideline for Diet and Physical Activity. https://www.cancer.org/healthy/eat-healthy-get-active/acs-guidelines-nutrition-physical-activity-cancer-prevention/guidelines.html, 2020.
  155. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Familial breast cancer: collaborative reanalysis of individual data from 52 epidemiological studies including 58,209 women with breast cancer and 101,986 women without the disease. Lancet. 358: 1389-99, 2001.
  156. Kharazmi E, Chen T, Narod S, Sundquist K, Hemminki K. Effect of multiplicity, laterality, and age at onset of breast cancer on familial risk of breast cancer: a nationwide prospective cohort study. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 144(1):185-92, 2014.
  157. Shiyanbola OO, Arao RF, Miglioretti DL, et al. Emerging trends in family history of breast cancer and associated risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 26(12):1753-1760, 2017.
  158. Braithwaite D, Miglioretti DL, Zhu W, et al. for the Breast Cancer Surveillance Consortium. Family history and breast cancer risk among older women in the Breast Cancer Surveillance Consortium cohort. JAMA Intern Med. 178(4):494-501, 2018.
  159. Mukama T, Kharazmi E, Sundquist K, Sundquist J, Brenner H, Fallah M. Familial risk of breast cancer by dynamic, accumulative, and static definitions of family history. Cancer. 126(12):2837-2848, 2020.
  160. Beebe-Dimmer JL, Yee C, Cote ML, et al. Familial clustering of breast and prostate cancer and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in the Women’s Health Initiative Study. Cancer. 121(8):1265-72, 2015.
  161. Leongamornlert D, Mahmud N, Tymrakiewicz M, et al. Germline BRCA1 mutations increase prostate cancer risk. Br J Cancer. 106(10):1697-701, 2012.
  162. Li S, Silvestri V, Leslie G, et al. Cancer risks associated with BRCA1 and BRCA2 pathogenic variants. J Clin Oncol. 40(14):1529-1541, 2022.
  163. National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN). NCCN Clinical practice guidelines in oncology: Breast cancer screening and diagnosis, Version 1.2022. http://www.nccn.org, 2022.
  164. Boggs DA, Palmer JR, Wise LA, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake in relation to risk of breast cancer in the Black Women’s Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 172(11):1268-79, 2010.
  165. Jung S, Spiegelman D, Baglietto L, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of breast cancer by hormone receptor status. J Natl Cancer Inst. 105(3):219-36, 2013.
  166. Emaus MJ, Peeters PH, Bakker MF, et al. Vegetable and fruit consumption and the risk of hormone receptor-defined breast cancer in the EPIC cohort. Am J Clin Nutr. 103(1):168-77, 2016.
  167. Farvid MS, Chen WY, Rosner BA, Tamimi RM, Willett WC, Eliassen AH. Fruit and vegetable consumption and breast cancer incidence: Repeated measures over 30 years of follow-up. Int J Cancer. 144(7):1496-1510, 2019.
  168. Farvid MS, Barnett JB, Spence ND. Fruit and vegetable consumption and incident breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br J Cancer. 125(2):284-298, 2021.
  169. Aune D, Giovannucci E, Boffetta P, et al. Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease, total cancer and all-cause mortality-a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int J Epidemiol. 2017 46(3):1029-1056, 2017.
  170. Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Vadiveloo M, et al. 2021 Dietary Guidance to Improve Cardiovascular Health: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 144(23):e472-e487, 2021.
  171. Farvid MS, Chen WY, Michels KB, Cho E, Willett WC, Eliassen AH. Fruit and vegetable consumption in adolescence and early adulthood and risk of breast cancer: population based cohort study. BMJ. 353:i2343, 2016.
  172. Eliassen AH, Hendrickson SJ, Brinton LA, et al. Circulating carotenoids and risk of breast cancer: pooled analysis of eight prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 104(24):1905-16, 2012.
  173. Nagel G, Linseisen J, van Gils CH, et al. Dietary beta-carotene, vitamin C and E intake and breast cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Breast Cancer Res Treat. 119(3):753-65, 2010.
  174. Maillard V, Kuriki K, Lefebvre B, et al. Serum carotenoid, tocopherol and retinol concentrations and breast cancer risk in the E3N-EPIC study. Int J Cancer. 127(5):1188-96, 2010.
  175. Cui Y, Shikany JM, Liu S, Shagufta Y, Rohan TE. Selected antioxidants and risk of hormone receptor-defined invasive breast cancers among postmenopausal women in the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 87(4):1009-18, 2008.
  176. Zhang X, Spiegelman D, Baglietto L, et al. Carotenoid intakes and risk of breast cancer defined by estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor status: a pooled analysis of 18 prospective cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 95(3):713-25, 2012.
  177. Druesne-Pecollo N, Latino-Martel P, Norat T, et al. Beta-carotene supplementation and cancer risk: a systematic review and metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Cancer. 127(1):172-84, 2010.
  178. O’Connor EA, Evans CV, Ivlev I, et al. Vitamin and mineral supplements for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: updated evidence report and systematic review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. JAMA. 327(23):2334-2347, 2022.
  179. Green J, Cairns BJ, Casabonne D, Wright FL, Reeves G, Beral V; for the Million Women Study collaborators. Height and cancer incidence in the Million Women Study: prospective cohort, and meta-analysis of prospective studies of height and total cancer risk. Lancet Oncol. 12(8):785-94, 2011.
  180. Mellemkjær L, Christensen J, Frederiksen K, et al. Leg length, sitting height and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Br J Cancer. 107(1):165-8, 2012.
  181. Kabat GC, Heo M, Kamensky V, Miller AB, Rohan TE. Adult height in relation to risk of cancer in a cohort of Canadian women. Int J Cancer. 132(5):1125-32, 2013.
  182. Kabat GC, Anderson ML, Heo M, et al. Adult stature and risk of cancer at different anatomic sites in a cohort of postmenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 22(8):1353-1363, 2013.
  183. Ritte R, Lukanova A, Tjønneland A, et al. Height, age at menarche and risk of hormone receptor-positive and -negative breast cancer: a cohort study. Int J Cancer. 132(11):2619-29, 2013.
  184. Wirén S, Häggström C, Ulmer H, et al. Pooled cohort study on height and risk of cancer and cancer death. Cancer Causes Control. 25(2):151-9, 2014.
  185. Zhang B, Shu XO, Delahanty RJ, et al. Height and breast cancer risk: evidence from prospective studies and Mendelian randomization. J Natl Cancer Inst. 107(11). pii: djv219, 2015.
  186. Guo W, Key TJ, Reeves GK. Adiposity and breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women: Results from the UK Biobank prospective cohort. Int J Cancer. 143(5):1037-1046, 2018.
  187. Aarestrup J, Bjerregaard LG, Meyle KD, et al. Birthweight, childhood overweight, height and growth and adult cancer risks: a review of studies using the Copenhagen School Health Records Register. Int J Obes (Lond). 44(7):1546-1560, 2020.
  188. Hartmann LC, Sellers TA, Frost MH, et al. Benign breast disease and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 353(3):229-37, 2005.
  189. Dyrstad SW, Yan Y, Fowler AM, Colditz GA. Breast cancer risk associated with benign breast disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 149(3):569-75, 2015.
  190. Menes TS, Kerlikowske K, Lange J, Jaffer S, Rosenberg R, Miglioretti DL. Subsequent breast cancer risk following diagnosis of atypical ductal hyperplasia on needle biopsy. JAMA Oncol. 3(1):36-41, 2017.
  191. Lilleborge M, Falk RS, Russnes H, Sauer T, Ursin G, Hofvind S. Risk of breast cancer by prior screening results among women participating in BreastScreen Norway. Cancer. 125(19):3330-3337, 2019.
  192. Hartmann LC, Radisky DC, Frost MH, et al. Understanding the premalignant potential of atypical hyperplasia through its natural history: a longitudinal cohort study. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 7(2):211-7, 2014.
  193. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN Clinical practices guidelines in oncology: Breast cancer risk reduction. V.1.2023. http://www.nccn.org, 2022.
  194. Tai YC, Domchek S, Parmigiani G, Chen S. Breast cancer risk among male BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 99(23):1811-4, 2007.
  195. Lecarpentier J, Silvestri V, Kuchenbaecker KB, et al. Prediction of breast and prostate cancer risks in male BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers using polygenic risk scores. J Clin Oncol. 35(20):2240-2250, 2017.
  196. Silvestri V, Leslie L, Barnes DR, et al. Characterization of the cancer spectrum in men with germline BRCA1 and BRCA2 pathogenic variants: results from the Consortium of Investigators of Modifiers of BRCA1/2 (CIMBA). JAMA Oncol. 6(8):1218-1230, 2020.
  197. Nahshon C, Segev Y, Gemer O, et al. Should the risk for uterine cancer influence decision making for prophylactic hysterectomy in BRCA1/2 mutated patients- a systematic review and meta-analysis. Gynecol Oncol. 160(3):755-762, 2021.
  198. Palmer JR, Polley EC, Hu C, et al. Contribution of germline predisposition gene mutations to breast cancer risk in African American women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 112(12):1213-1221, 2020.
  199. Hu C, Hart SN, Gnanaolivu R, et al. A population-based study of genes previously implicated in breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 384(5):440-451, 2021.
  200. Li S, Silvestri V, Leslie G, et al. Cancer risks associated with BRCA1 and BRCA2 pathogenic variants. J Clin Oncol. 40(14):1529-1541, 2022.
  201. Isaacs C and Peshkin BN. Cancer risks and management of BRCA1/2 carriers without cancer. In: Chagpar AB, Goff B, Burstein HJ, Vora SR, eds. UpToDate. Waltham, MA, UpToDate, 2022.
  202. Domchek SM, Yao S, Chen F, et al. for the CARRIERS Consortium. Comparison of the prevalence of pathogenic variants in cancer susceptibility genes in Black women and non-Hispanic white women with breast cancer in the United States. JAMA Oncol. 7(7):1045-1050, 2021.
  203. Malone KE, Begg CB, Haile RW, et al. Population-based study of the risk of second primary contralateral breast cancer associated with carrying a mutation in BRCA1 or BRCA2. J Clin Oncol. 28(14):2404-10, 2010.
  204. Metcalfe K, Gershman S, Lynch HT et al. Predictors of contralateral breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Br J Cancer. 104(9):1384-92, 2011.
  205. van den Broek AJ, van ‘t Veer LJ, Hooning MJ, et al. Impact of age at primary breast cancer on contralateral breast cancer risk in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers. J Clin Oncol. 34(5):409-18, 2016.
  206. Engel C, Fischer C, Zachariae S, et al. for the German Consortium for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (GC-HBOC). Breast cancer risk in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers and noncarriers under prospective intensified surveillance. Int J Cancer. 146(4):999-1009, 2020.
  207. Giannakeas V, Lim DW, Narod SA. The risk of contralateral breast cancer: a SEER-based analysis. Br J Cancer. 125(4):601-610, 2021.
  208. American Cancer Society. Ovarian cancer risk factors. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/ovarian-cancer/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html, 2021.
  209. Kurian AW, Abrahamse P, Bondarenko I, et al. Association of genetic testing results with mortality among women with breast cancer or ovarian cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 114(2):245-253, 2022.
  210. Nahshon C, Barnett-Griness O, Segev Y, Schmidt M, Ostrovsky L, Lavie O. Five-year survival decreases over time in patients with BRCA-mutated ovarian cancer: a systemic review and meta-analysis. Int J Gynecol Cancer. 32(1):48-54, 2022.
  211. Marth C, Abreu MH, Andersen KK, et al. Real-life data on treatment and outcomes in advanced ovarian cancer: An observational, multinational cohort study (RESPONSE trial). Cancer. 128(16):3080-3089, 2022.
  212. Yang D, Khan S, Sun Y, et al. Association of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations with survival, chemotherapy sensitivity, and gene mutator phenotype in patients with ovarian cancer. JAMA. 306(14):1557-65, 2011.
  213. Lesnock JL, Darcy KM, Tian C, et al. BRCA1 expression and improved survival in ovarian cancer patients treated with intraperitoneal cisplatin and paclitaxel: a Gynecologic Oncology Group Study. Br J Cancer. 108(6):1231-7, 2013.
  214. Wang Y, Song Z, Zhang S, Wang X, Li P. Risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy and breast cancer risk in BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Surg Oncol. 48(6):1209-1216, 2022.
  215. Schmidt MK, van den Broek AJ, Tollenaar RA, et al. Breast cancer survival of BRCA1/BRCA2 mutation carriers in a hospital-based cohort of young women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 109(8), 2017.
  216. Copson ER, Maishman TC, Tapper WJ, et al. Germline BRCA mutation and outcome in young-onset breast cancer (POSH): a prospective cohort study. Lancet Oncol. 19(2):169-180, 2018.
  217. Fasching PA, Yadav S, Hu C, et al. Mutations in BRCA1/2 and other panel genes in patients with metastatic breast cancer -association with patient and disease characteristics and effect on prognosis. J Clin Oncol. 39(15):1619-1630, 2021.
  218. National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN). NCCN Clinical practice guidelines in oncology: Breast cancer V.4.2022. http://www.nccn.org/, 2022.
  219. Telli ML, Jensen KC, Vinayak S, et al. Phase II study of gemcitabine, carboplatin, and iniparib as neoadjuvant therapy for triple-negative and BRCA1/2 mutation-associated breast cancer with assessment of a tumor-based measure of genomic instability: PrECOG 0105. J Clin Oncol. 33(17):1895-901, 2015.
  220. Jernström H, Lubinski J, Lynch HT, et al. Breast-feeding and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 96: 1094-8, 2004.
  221. Pijpe A, Manders P, Brohet RM, et al. for the Netherlands Collaborative Group on Hereditary Breast Cancer (HEBON). Physical activity and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1/2 mutation carriers. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 120(1):235-44, 2010.
  222. Kehm RD, Genkinger JM, MacInnis RJ, et al. Recreational physical activity is associated with reduced breast cancer risk in adult women at high risk for breast cancer: a cohort study of women selected for familial and genetic risk. Cancer Res. 80(1):116-125, 2020.
  223. Cullinane CA, Lubinski J, Neuhausen SL, et al. Effect of pregnancy as a risk factor for breast cancer in BRCA1/BRCA2 mutation carriers. Int J Cancer. 117(6):988-91, 2005.
  224. Friebel TM, Domchek SM, Rebbeck TR. Modifiers of cancer risk in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 106(6):dju091, 2014.
  225. Kotsopoulos J, Gronwald J, Lynch HT, et al. for the Hereditary Breast Cancer Clinical Study Group. Age at first full-term birth and breast cancer risk in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 171(2):421-426, 2018.
  226. Terry MB, Liao Y, Kast K, et al. for EMBRACE, GENEPSO, BCFR, HEBON, kConFab and IBCCS. The influence of number and timing of pregnancies on breast cancer risk for women with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. JNCI Cancer Spectr. 2(4):pky078, 2018.
  227. Moorman PG, Havrilesky LJ, Gierisch JM, et al. Oral contraceptives and risk of ovarian cancer and breast cancer among high-risk women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol. 31(33):4188-98, 2013.
  228. Li H, Terry MB, Antoniou AC, et al. for the GENEPSO study. Alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, and risk of breast cancer for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers: results from the BRCA1 and BRCA2 Cohort Consortium. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 29(2):368-378, 2020.
  229. Yaffe MJ, Mainprize JG. Risk of radiation-induced breast cancer from mammographic screening. Radiology. 258(1):98-105, 2011.
  230. Siu AL on behalf of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for breast cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 164(4):279-96, 2016.
  231. Pijpe A, Andrieu N, Easton DF, et al for GENEPSO; EMBRACE; HEBON. Exposure to diagnostic radiation and risk of breast cancer among carriers of BRCA1/2 mutations: retrospective cohort study (GENE-RAD-RISK). BMJ. 345:e5660, 2012.
  232. Vogel VG, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al. for the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project. Update of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene (STAR) P-2 Trial: Preventing breast cancer. Cancer Prev Res. 3(6):696-706, 2010.
  233. Goss PE, Ingle JN, Alés-Martínez JE, et al. for the NCIC CTG MAP.3 Study Investigators. Exemestane for breast-cancer prevention in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 364(25):2381-91, 2011.
  234. Cuzick J, Sestak I, Forbes JF, et al. for the IBIS-II investigators. Use of anastrozole for breast cancer prevention (IBIS-II): long-term results of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 395(10218):117-122, 2020.
  235. Hartmann LC, Sellers TA, Schaid DJ, et al. Efficacy of bilateral prophylactic mastectomy in BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 93:1633-7, 2001.
  236. Lostumbo L, Carbine NE, Wallace J. Prophylactic mastectomy for the prevention of breast cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. (11):CD002748, 2010.
  237. Hartmann LC, Lindor NM. The role of risk-reducing surgery in hereditary breast and ovarian cancer. N Engl J Med. 374(5):454-68, 2016.
  238. van Roosmalen MS, Verhoef LC, Stalmeier PF, et al. Decision analysis of prophylactic surgery or screening for BRCA1 mutation carriers: a more prominent role for oophorectomy. J Clin Oncol. 20:2092-100, 2002.
  239. Sigal BM, Munoz DF, Kurian AW, Plevritis SK. A simulation model to predict the impact of prophylactic surgery and screening on the life expectancy of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 21(7):1066-77, 2012.
  240. Kauff ND, Satagopan JM, Robson ME, et al. Risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy in women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. N Engl J Med. 346:1609-15, 2002.
  241. Rebbeck TR, Lynch HT, Neuhausen SL, et al. Prophylactic oophorectomy in carriers of BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. N Engl J Med. 346:1616-22, 2002.
  242. Rebbeck TR, Kauff ND, Domchek SM. Meta-analysis of risk reduction estimates associated with risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy in BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 101(2):80-7, 2009.
  243. Finch AP, Lubinski J, Møller P, et al. Impact of oophorectomy on cancer incidence and mortality in women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. J Clin Oncol. 32(15):1547-53, 2014.
  244. Kotsopoulos J, Huzarski T, Gronwald J, et al. for the Hereditary Breast Cancer Clinical Study Group. Bilateral oophorectomy and breast cancer risk in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 109(1):djw177, 2017.
  245. Liede A, Karlan BY, Narod SA. Cancer risks for male carriers of germline mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2: a review of the literature. J Clin Oncol. 22(4):735-42, 2004.
  246. Leongamornlert D, Mahmud N, Tymrakiewicz M, et al. Germline BRCA1 mutations increase prostate cancer risk. Br J Cancer. 106(10):1697-701, 2012.
  247. Oh M, Alkhushaym N, Fallatah S, et al. The association of BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations with prostate cancer risk, frequency, and mortality: A meta-analysis. Prostate. 79(8):880-895, 2019.
  248. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast Cancer – Cancer risk from birth over time, 2017-2019, by sex, all races, risk of being diagnosed with cancer. Accessed on October 31, 2022. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2022.
  249. Thorlacius S, Sigurdsson S, Bjarnadottir H, et al. Study of a single BRCA2 mutation with high carrier frequency in a small population. Am J Hum Genet. 60(5): 1079–1084, 1997.
  250. Orr N, Lemnrau A, Cooke R, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies a common variant in RAD51B associated with male breast cancer risk. Nat Genet. 44(11):1182-4, 2012.
  251. Silvestri V, Zelli V, Valentini V, et al. Whole-exome sequencing and targeted gene sequencing provide insights into the role of PALB2 as a male breast cancer susceptibility gene. Cancer. 123(2):210-218, 2017.
  252. Rizzolo P, Zelli V, Silvestri V, et al. Insight into genetic susceptibility to male breast cancer by multigene panel testing: Results from a multicenter study in Italy. Int J Cancer. 145(2):390-400, 2019.
  253. Hassett MJ, Somerfield MR, Baker ER. Management of male breast cancer: ASCO guideline. J Clin Oncol. 38(16):1849-1863, 2020.
  254. Niewoehner CB, Schorer AE. Gynaecomastia and breast cancer in men. BMJ. 336(7646):709-13, 2008.
  255. Brinton LA, Carreon JD, Gierach GL, McGlynn KA, Gridley G. Etiologic factors for male breast cancer in the U.S. Veterans Affairs medical care system database. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 119(1):185-92, 2010.
  256. Brinton LA, Cook MB, McCormack V, et al. Anthropometric and hormonal risk factors for male breast cancer: Male Breast Cancer Pooling Project results. J Natl Cancer Inst. 106(3):djt465, 2014.
  257. Schernhammer ES, Holly JM, Pollak MN, Hankinson SE. Circulating levels of insulin-like growth factors, their binding proteins, and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 14(3):699-704, 2005.
  258. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Reeves GK, Roddam AW for the Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Collaborative Group. Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), IGF binding protein 3 (IGFBP3), and breast cancer risk: pooled individual data analysis of 17 prospective studies. Lancet Oncol. 11(6):530-42, 2010.
  259. Kaaks R, Johnson T, Tikk K, et al. for European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. Insulin-like growth factor I and risk of breast cancer by age and hormone receptor status-A prospective study within the EPIC cohort. Int J Cancer. 134(11):2683-90, 2014.
  260. Murphy N, Knuppel A, Papadimitriou N, et al. Insulin-like growth factor-1, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3, and breast cancer risk: observational and Mendelian randomization analyses with ∼430 000 women. Ann Oncol. 31(5):641-649, 2020.
  261. Wegrzyn LR, Tamimi RM, Rosner BA, et al. Rotating night shift work and risk of breast cancer in the Nurses’ Health Studies. Am J Epidemiol. 186(5):532-540, 2017.
  262. Yuan X, Zhu C, Wang M, Mo F, Du W, Ma X. Night shift work increases the risks of multiple primary cancers in women: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 61 articles. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 27(1):25-40, 2018.
  263. Manouchehri E, Taghipour A, Ghavami V, Ebadi A, Homaei F, Latifnejad Roudsari R. Night-shift work duration and breast cancer risk: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Womens Health. 21(1):89, 2021.
  264. Brown SB, Hankinson SE, Eliassen AH, et al. Urinary melatonin concentration and the risk of breast cancer in Nurses’ Health Study II. Am J Epidemiol. 181(3):155-62, 2015.
  265. Devore EE, Warner ET, Eliassen AH, et al. Urinary melatonin in relation to postmenopausal breast cancer risk according to melatonin 1 receptor status. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 26(3):413-419, 2017.
  266. Cos S, González A, Güezmes A, et al. Melatonin inhibits the growth of DMBA-induced mammary tumors by decreasing the local biosynthesis of estrogens through the modulation of aromatase activity. Int J Cancer. 118(2):274-8, 2006.
  267. Sabel MS and Collins LC. Atypia and lobular carcinoma in situ: high-risk lesions of the breast. In: Chagpar AB, Whitman G, Chen W, eds. UpToDate. Waltham, MA, UpToDate, 2022.
  268. King TA and Reis-Filho JS. Chapter 22: Lobular Carcinoma In Situ: Biology and Management, in Harris JR, Lippman ME, Morrow M, Osborne CK. Diseases of the Breast, 5th edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2014.
  269. Minami CA, Zabor EC, Gilbert E, et al. Do body mass index and breast density impact cancer risk among women with lobular carcinoma in situ? Ann Surg Oncol. 27(6):1844-1851, 2020.
  270. Wong SM, King T, Boileau JF, Barry WT, Golshan M. Population-based analysis of breast cancer incidence and survival outcomes in women diagnosed with lobular carcinoma in situ. Ann Surg Oncol. 24(9):2509-2517, 2017.
  271. Eroglu I, Sevilimedu V, Park A, King TA, Pilewskie ML. Accuracy of the Breast Cancer Surveillance Consortium model among women with LCIS. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 194(2):257-264, 2022.
  272. Shah-Khan MG, Geiger XJ, Reynolds C, Jakub JW, Deperi ER, Glazebrook KN. Long-term follow-up of lobular neoplasia (atypical lobular hyperplasia/lobular carcinoma in situ) diagnosed on core needle biopsy. Ann Surg Oncol. 19(10):3131-8, 2012.
  273. Jean-Louis CJ, Masdon J, Smith B, Battles O, Dale P. The pathologic finding of combined lobular carcinoma in situ and invasive lobular cancer may indicate more than just a high-risk marker role of lobular carcinoma in situ. Am Surg. 83(5):482-485, 2017.
  274. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Menopause and hormones: Common questions. https://www.fda.gov/media/130242/download, 2019.
  275. Colditz GA, Hankinson SE, Hunter DJ, et al. The use of estrogens and progestins and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 332: 1589-93, 1995.
  276. Beral V for the Million Women Study Collaborators. Breast cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet. 362:419-27, 2003.
  277. Bakken K, Fournier A, Lund E, et al. Menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer risk: impact of different treatments. The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Int J Cancer. 128(1):144-56, 2011.
  278. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Type and timing of menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis of the worldwide epidemiological evidence. Lancet. 394(10204):1159-1168, 2019.
  279. Wang SM, Pfeiffer RM, Gierach GL, Falk RT. Use of postmenopausal hormone therapies and risk of histology- and hormone receptor-defined breast cancer: results from a 15-year prospective analysis of NIH-AARP cohort. Breast Cancer Res. 22(1):129, 2020.
  280. Chlebowski RT, Anderson GL, Aragaki AK, et al. Association of menopausal hormone therapy with breast cancer incidence and mortality during long-term follow-up of the Women’s Health Initiative randomized clinical trials. JAMA. 324(4):369-380, 2020.
  281. Chlebowski RT, Hendrix SL, Langer RD, et al. Influence of estrogen plus progestin on breast cancer and mammography in healthy postmenopausal women: the Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Trial. JAMA. 289:3243-53, 2003.
  282. Writing Group for the Women’s Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results from the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 288(3):321-33, 2002.
  283. Manson JE, Bassuk SS, Kaunitz AM, Pinkerton JV. The Women’s Health Initiative trials of menopausal hormone therapy: lessons learned. Menopause. 27(8):918-928, 2020.
  284. Manson JE, Chlebowski RT, Stefanick ML, et al. Menopausal hormone therapy and health outcomes during the intervention and extended poststopping phases of the Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Trials. JAMA. 310(13):1353-1368, 2013.
  285. Chlebowski RT, Anderson GL, Aragaki AK, et al. Association of menopausal hormone therapy with breast cancer incidence and mortality during long-term follow-up of the Women’s Health Initiative randomized clinical trials. JAMA. 324(4):369-380, 2020.
  286. Chen WY, Manson JE, Hankinson SE, et al. Unopposed estrogen therapy and risk of invasive breast cancer. Arch Intern Med. 166(9):1027-1032, 2006.
  287. Holmberg L, Iverson OE, Rudenstam CM, et al., for the HABITS Study Group. Increased risk of recurrence after hormone replacement therapy in breast cancer survivors.J Natl Cancer Inst. 100(7):475-82, 2008.
  288. Fahlén M, Fornander T, Johansson H, et al. Hormone replacement therapy after breast cancer: 10 year follow up of the Stockholm randomised trial. Eur J Cancer. 49(1):52-9, 2013.
  289. Mudhune GH, Armour M, McBride KA. Safety of menopausal hormone therapy in breast cancer survivors older than fifty at diagnosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Breast. 47:43-55, 2019.
  290. Poggio F, Del Mastro L, Bruzzone M, et al. Safety of systemic hormone replacement therapy in breast cancer survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 191(2):269-275, 2022.
  291. Lee JM, Buist DS, Houssami N, et al. Five-year risk of interval-invasive second breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 107(7), 2015.
  292. Ricceri F, Fasanelli F, Giraudo MT, et al. Risk of second primary malignancies in women with breast cancer: Results from the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition (EPIC). Int J Cancer. 137(4):940-8, 2015.
  293. Mars N, Widén E, Kerminen S, et al. The role of polygenic risk and susceptibility genes in breast cancer over the course of life. Nat Commun. 11(1):6383, 2020.
  294. Kurian AW, Canchola AJ, Ma CS, Clarke CA, Gomez SL. Magnitude of reduction in risk of second contralateral breast cancer with bilateral mastectomy in patients with breast cancer: Data from California, 1998 through 2015. Cancer. 126(5):958-970, 2020.
  295. Nsouli-Maktabi HH, Henson DE, Younes N, Young HA, Cleary SD. Second primary breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancers in Black and White breast cancer survivors over a 35-year time span: effect of age. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 129(3):963-9, 2011.
  296. Bessonova L, Taylor TH, Mehta RS, Zell JA, Anton-Culver H. Risk of a second breast cancer associated with hormone-receptor and HER2/neu status of the first breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 20(2):389-96, 2011.
  297. Reiner AS, Lynch CF, Sisti JS, et al. for the WECARE Study Collaborative Group. Hormone receptor status of a first primary breast cancer predicts contralateral breast cancer risk in the WECARE study population. Breast Cancer Res. 19(1):83, 2017.
  298. Lowry KP, Ichikawa L, Hubbard RA, et al. Variation in second breast cancer risk after primary invasive cancer by time since primary cancer diagnosis and estrogen receptor status. Cancer. 2023 Feb 15 [Online ahead of print].
  299. Collins LC, Tamimi RM, Baer HJ, Connolly JL, Colditz GA, Schnitt SJ. Outcome of patients with ductal carcinoma in situ untreated after diagnostic biopsy: results from the Nurses’ Health Study. Cancer. 103(9):1778-1784, 2005.
  300. Erbas B, Provenzano E, Armes J, Gertig D. The natural history of ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast: a review. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 97(2):135-144, 2006.
  301. Sanders ME, Schuyler PA, Simpson JF, Page DL, Dupont WD. Continued observation of the natural history of low-grade ductal carcinoma in situ reaffirms proclivity for local recurrence even after more than 30 years of follow-up. Mod Pathol. 28(5):662-669, 2015.
  302. Ryser MD, Weaver DL, Zhao F, et al. Cancer outcomes in DCIS patients without locoregional treatment. J Natl Cancer Inst. 111(9):952-960, 2019.
  303. Visser LL, Groen EJ, van Leeuwen FE, Lips EH, Schmidt MK, Wesseling J. Predictors of an invasive breast cancer recurrence after DCIS: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 28(5):835-845, 2019.
  304. Wärnberg F, Garmo H, Emdin S, et al. Effect of radiotherapy after breast-conserving surgery for ductal carcinoma in situ: 20 years follow-up in the randomized SweDCIS Trial. J Clin Oncol. 32(32):3613-8, 2014.
  305. Shah C, Wobb J, Manyam B, et al. Management of ductal carcinoma in situ of the breast: a review. JAMA Oncol. 2(8):1083-8, 2016.
  306. Miller ME, Muhsen S, Olcese C, Patil S, Morrow M, Van Zee KJ. Contralateral breast cancer risk in women with ductal carcinoma in situ: is it high enough to justify bilateral mastectomy? Ann Surg Oncol. 24(10):2889-2897, 2017.
  307. Swerdlow AJ, Cooke R, Bates A, et al. Breast cancer risk after supradiaphragmatic radiotherapy for Hodgkin’s lymphoma in England and Wales: a National Cohort Study. J Clin Oncol. 30(22):2745-52, 2012.
  308. Ibrahim EM, Abouelkhair KM, Kazkaz GA, Elmasri OA, Al-Foheidi M. Risk of second breast cancer in female Hodgkin’s lymphoma survivors: a meta-analysis. BMC Cancer. 12:197, 2012.
  309. Moskowitz CS, Chou JF, Wolden SL, et al. Breast cancer after chest radiation therapy for childhood cancer. J Clin Oncol. 32(21):2217-23, 2014.
  310. Schaapveld M, Aleman BM, van Eggermond AM, et al. Second cancer risk up to 40 years after treatment for Hodgkin’s lymphoma. N Engl J Med. 373(26):2499-511, 2015.
  311. Sud A, Thomsen H, Sundquist K, Houlston RS, Hemminki K. Risk of second cancer in Hodgkin lymphoma survivors and influence of family history. J Clin Oncol. 35(14):1584-1590, 2017.
  312. Bright CJ, Reulen RC, Winter DL, et al. Risk of subsequent primary neoplasms in survivors of adolescent and young adult cancer (Teenage and Young Adult Cancer Survivor Study): a population-based, cohort study. Lancet Oncol. 20(4):531-545, 2019.
  313. Ngeow J, Stanuch K, Mester JL, Barnholtz-Sloan JS, Eng C. Second malignant neoplasms in patients with Cowden syndrome with underlying germline PTEN mutations. J Clin Oncol. 32(17):1818-24, 2014.
  314. Tworoger SS, Eliassen AH, Sluss P, Hankinson SE. A prospective study of plasma prolactin concentrations and risk of premenopausal and postmenopausal breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 25(12):1482-8, 2007.
  315. Tikk K, Sookthai D, Johnson T, et al. Circulating prolactin and breast cancer risk among pre- and postmenopausal women in the EPIC cohort. Ann Oncol. 25(7):1422-8, 2014.
  316. Inskip PD, Sigurdson AJ, Veiga L, et al. Radiation-related new primary solid cancers in the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study: comparative radiation dose response and modification of treatment effects. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 94(4):800-7, 2016.
  317. Veiga LH, Curtis RE, Morton LM, et al. Association of breast cancer risk after childhood cancer with radiation dose to the breast and anthracycline use: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. JAMA Pediatr. 173(12):1171-1179, 2019.
  318. Zeeb H, Blettner M, Langner I, et al. Mortality from cancer and other causes among airline cabin attendants in Europe: a collaborative cohort study in eight countries. Am J Epidemiol. 158(1):35-46, 2003.
  319. Rushton L, Bagga S, Bevan R, et al. Occupation and cancer in Britain. Br J Cancer. 102(9):1428-37, 2010.
  320. Pukkala E, Helminen M, Haldorsen T, et al. Cancer incidence among Nordic airline cabin crew. Int J Cancer. 131(12):2886-97, 2012.
  321. Xue F, Willett WC, Rosner BA, Hankinson SE, Michels KB. Cigarette smoking and the incidence of breast cancer. Arch Intern Med. 171(2):125-133, 2011.
  322. Bjerkaas E, Parajuli R, Weiderpass E, et al. Smoking duration before first childbirth: an emerging risk factor for breast cancer? Results from 302,865 Norwegian women. Cancer Causes Control. 24(7):1347-56, 2013.
  323. Gaudet MM, Gapstur SM, Sun J, Diver WR, Hannan LM, Thun MJ. Active smoking and breast cancer risk: original cohort data and meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 105(8):515-25, 2013.
  324. Nyante SJ, Gierach GL, Dallal, et al. Cigarette smoking and postmenopausal breast cancer risk in a prospective cohort. Br J Cancer. 110(9):2339-47, 2014.
  325. Catsburg C, Miller AB, Rohan TE. Active cigarette smoking and risk of breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 136(9):2204-9, 2015.
  326. Macacu A, Autier P, Boniol M, Boyle P. Active and passive smoking and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 154(2):213-24, 2015.
  327. Gaudet MM, Carter BD, Brinton LA, et al. Pooled analysis of active cigarette smoking and invasive breast cancer risk in 14 cohort studies. Int J Epidemiol. 46(3):881-893, 2017.
  328. Al-Delaimy WK, Cho E, Chen WY, Colditz GA, Willet WC. A prospective study of smoking and risk of breast cancer in young adult women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 13(3):398-404, 2004.
  329. Gram IT, Braaten T, Terry PD, et al. Breast cancer risk among women who start smoking as teenagers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 14(1):61-6, 2005.
  330. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking — 50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 2014.
  331. Pierce JP, Patterson RE, Senger CM, et al. Lifetime cigarette smoking and breast cancer prognosis in the after breast cancer pooling project. J Natl Cancer Inst. 106(1):djt359, 2014.
  332. American Cancer Society. It’s not too late to quit smoking. https://www.cancer.org/latest-news/never-too-late-to-quit-smoking.html, 2020.
  333. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast Cancer – 5-year age-adjusted incidence rates, 2015-2019, by race/ethnicity, female, all ages, all stages. Accessed on April 19, 2022. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2022.
  334. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer risk from birth over time, 2017-2019, by race/ethnicity, female, risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer. Accessed on April 26, 2022. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2022.
  335. Haiman CA, Pike MC, Bernstein L, et al. Ethnic differences in ovulatory function in nulliparous women. Br J Cancer. 86:367-71, 2002.
  336. Anderson SE, Dallal GE, Must A. Relative weight and race influence average age at menarche: results from two nationally representative surveys of US girls studied 25 years apart. Pediatrics. 111:844-50, 2003.
  337. Chlebowski RT, Chen Z, Anderson GL, et al. Ethnicity and breast cancer: factors influencing differences in incidence and outcome. J Natl Cancer Inst. 16;97(6):439-48, 2005.
  338. Warner ET, Tamimi RM, Boggs DA, et al. Estrogen receptor positive tumors: do reproductive factors explain differences in incidence between black and white women? Cancer Causes Control. 24(4):731-9, 2013.
  339. Biro FM, Pajak A, Wolff MS, et al. Age of menarche in a longitudinal US cohort. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 31(4):339-345, 2018.
  340. Xiang AH, Chow T, Mora-Marquez J, et al. Breastfeeding persistence at 6 months: trends and disparities from 2008 to 2015. J Pediatr. 208:169-175, 2019.
  341. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures for African Americans: 2022-2024. Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society, 2022.
  342. John EM, Phipps AI, Hines LM, et al. Menstrual and reproductive characteristics and breast cancer risk by hormone receptor status and ethnicity: The Breast Cancer Etiology in Minorities study. Int J Cancer. 147(7):1808-1822, 2020.
  343. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures for Hispanic/Latino People, 2021-2023. Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society, 2021.
  344. Sarink D, White KK, Loo LWM, et al. Racial/ethnic differences in postmenopausal breast cancer risk by hormone receptor status: The multiethnic cohort study. Int J Cancer. 150(2):221-231, 2022.
  345. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer – SEER 5-year age-adjusted incidence rates, 2015-2019, by race/ethnicity, female, all ages, all stages. Accessed on April 26, 2022. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2022.
  346. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer – recent trends in SEER age-adjusted incidence rates, 2000-2019, by race/ethnicity, observed SEER incidence rate, female, ages 15-39, all stages. Accessed on April 26, 2022. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2022.
  347. Howlader N, Altekruse SF, Li CI, et al. US incidence of breast cancer subtypes defined by joint hormone receptor and HER2 status. J Natl Cancer Inst. 106(5), 2014.
  348. Kohler BA, Sherman RL, Howlader N, et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2011, featuring incidence of breast cancer subtypes by race/ethnicity, poverty, and state. J Natl Cancer Inst. 107(6), 2015.
  349. Scott LC, Mobley LR, Kuo TM, Il’yasova D. Update on triple-negative breast cancer disparities for the United States: A population-based study from the United States Cancer Statistics database, 2010 through 2014. Cancer. 125(19):3412-3417, 2019.
  350. Anders CK, Carey LA. ER/PR negative, HER2-negative (triple negative) breast cancer. In: UpToDate. Hayes DF, Burstein HJ, Vora SR (eds.). Waltham, MA: UpToDate, 2022.
  351. Martínez ME, Gomez SL, Tao L, et al. Contribution of clinical and socioeconomic factors to differences in breast cancer subtype and mortality between Hispanic and non-Hispanic white women. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 166(1):185-193, 2017.
  352. Rey-Vargas L, Sanabria-Salas MC, Fejerman L, Serrano-Gómez SJ. Risk factors for triple-negative breast cancer among Latina women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 28(11):1771-1783, 2019.
  353. Scott LC, Mobley LR, Kuo TM, Il’yasova D. Update on triple-negative breast cancer disparities for the United States: A population-based study from the United States Cancer Statistics database, 2010 through 2014. Cancer. 125(19):3412-3417, 2019.
  354. McGuire A, Lowery AJ, Kell MR, Kerin MJ, Sweeney KJ. Locoregional recurrence following breast cancer surgery in the trastuzumab era: a systematic review by subtype. Ann Surg Oncol. 24(11):3124-3132, 2017.
  355. Chollet-Hinton L, Olshan AF, Nichols HB, et al. Biology and etiology of young-onset breast cancers among premenopausal African American women: results from the AMBER Consortium. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 26(12):1722-1729, 2017.
  356. Yang XR, Chang-Claude J, Goode EL, et al. Associations of breast cancer risk factors with tumor subtypes: a pooled analysis from the Breast Cancer Association Consortium studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 103(3):250-63, 2011.
  357. Chen L, Li CI, Tang MC, et al. Reproductive factors and risk of luminal, HER2-overexpressing and triple negative breast cancer among multiethnic women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 25(9):1297-304, 2016.
  358. Li CI, Beaber EF, Tang MT, Porter PL, Daling JR, Malone KE. Reproductive factors and risk of estrogen receptor positive, triple-negative, and HER2-neu overexpressing breast cancer among women 20-44 years of age. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 137(2):579-87, 2013.
  359. Palmer JR, Boggs DA, Wise LA, Adams-Campbell LL, Rosenberg L. Individual and neighborhood socioeconomic status in relation to breast cancer incidence in African-American women. Am J Epidemiol. 176(12):1141-6. 2012.
  360. Lundqvist A, Andersson E, Ahlberg I, Nilbert M, Gerdtham U. Socioeconomic inequalities in breast cancer incidence and mortality in Europe-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Public Health. 26(5):804-813, 2016.
  361. Dong JY, Qin LQ. Education level and breast cancer incidence: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Menopause. 27(1):113-118, 2020.
  362. Trewin CB, Hjerkind KV, Johansson ALV, Strand BH, Kiserud CE, Ursin G. Socioeconomic inequalities in stage-specific breast cancer incidence: a nationwide registry study of 1.1 million young women in Norway, 2000-2015. Acta Oncol. 59(11):1284-1290, 2020.
  363. Berger E, Maitre N, Mancini FM, et al. The impact of lifecourse socio-economic position and individual social mobility on breast cancer risk. BMC Cancer. 20(1):1138, 2020.
  364. Aoki RF, Uong SP, Gomez SL, et al. Individual- and neighborhood-level socioeconomic status and risk of aggressive breast cancer subtypes in a pooled cohort of women from Kaiser Permanente Northern California. Cancer. 127(24):4602-4612, 2021.
  365. Katuwal S, Tapanainen J, Pukkala E. Multivariate analysis of independent roles of socioeconomic status, occupational physical activity, reproductive factors, and postmenopausal hormonal therapy in risk of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 193(2):495-505, 2022.
  366. Runowicz CD, Leach CR, Henry NL, et al. American Cancer Society/American Society of Clinical Oncology Breast Cancer Survivorship Care Guideline. J Clin Oncol. 34(6):611-35, 2016.
  367. Bradbury KE, Balkwill A, Spencer EA, et al. for the Million Women Study Collaborators. Organic food consumption and the incidence of cancer in a large prospective study of women in the United Kingdom. Br J Cancer. 110(9):2321-6, 2014.
  368. Ford D, Easton DF, Stratton M, et al. for The Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium. Genetic heterogeneity and penetrance analysis of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes in breast cancer families. The Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium. Am J Hum Genet. 62(3):676-89, 1998.
  369. Tandy-Connor S, Guiltinan J, Krempely K, LaDuca H, Reineke P, Gutierrez S, Gray P, Tippin Davis B. False-positive results released by direct-to-consumer genetic tests highlight the importance of clinical confirmation testing for appropriate patient care. Genet Med. 20(12):1515-1521, 2018.
  370. National Library of Medicine. MedlinePlus: How do direct-to-consumer genetic testing companies protect their customers’ privacy? https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/dtcgenetictesting/dtcprivacy/, 2022.
  371. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al. Tamoxifen for Prevention of Breast Cancer: Current Status of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 97(22):1652-62, 2005.
  372. Barrett-Connor E, Mosca L, Collins P, et al. Effects of raloxifene on cardiovascular events and breast cancer in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med. 355(2):125-37, 2006.
  373. Veronesi U, Maisonneuve P, Rotmensz N, et al. for the Italian Tamoxifen Study Group. Tamoxifen for the prevention of breast cancer: late results of the Italian Randomized Tamoxifen Prevention Trial among women with hysterectomy. J Natl Cancer Inst. 99(9):727-37, 2007.
  374. Cuzick J, Sestak I, Bonanni B, et al. for the SERM Chemoprevention of Breast Cancer Overview Group. Selective oestrogen receptor modulators in prevention of breast cancer: an updated meta-analysis of individual participant data. Lancet. 381(9880):1827-34, 2013.
  375. Nelson HD, Smith ME, Griffin JC, Fu R. Use of medications to reduce risk for primary breast cancer: a systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 158(8):604-14, 2013.
  376. Cuzick J, Sestak I, Cawthorn S, et al. for the IBIS-I Investigators. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: extended long-term follow-up of the IBIS-I breast cancer prevention trial. Lancet Oncol. 16(1):67-75, 2015.
  377. Haque R, Shi J, Schottinger JE, et al. Tamoxifen and antidepressant drug interaction in a cohort of 16,887 breast cancer survivors. J Natl Cancer Inst. 108(3):djv337, 2015.
  378. Donneyong MM, Bykov K, Bosco-Levy P, Dong YH, Levin R, Gagne JJ. Risk of mortality with concomitant use of tamoxifen and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: multi-database cohort study. BMJ. 354:i5014, 2016.
  379. Gail MH, Costantino JP, Bryant J, et al. Weighing the risks and benefits of tamoxifen treatment for preventing breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 91(21):1829-46, 1999.
  380. Freedman AN, Graubard BI, Rao SR, McCaskill-Stevens W, Ballard-Barbash R, Gail MH. Estimates of the number of US women who could benefit from tamoxifen for breast cancer chemoprevention. J Natl Cancer Inst. 95(7):526-32, 2003.
  381. Jakesz R, Jonat W, Gnant M, et al. on behalf of the Austrian Breast and Colorectal Cancer Study Group (ABCSG) and the German Adjuvant Breast Cancer Group (GABG). Switching of postmenopausal women with endocrine-responsive early breast cancer to anastrozole after 2 years’ adjuvant tamoxifen: combined results of ABCSG trial 8 and ARNO 95 trial. Lancet. 366(9484):455-62, 2005.
  382. Forbes JF, Cuzick J, Budzar A, Howell A, Tobias JS, Baum M for the Arimidex, Tamoxifen, Alone or in Combination (ATAC) Trialists’ Group. Effect of anastrozole and tamoxifen as adjuvant treatment for early-stage breast cancer: 100-month analysis of the ATAC trial. Lancet Oncol. 9(1):45-53, 2008.
  383. Eastell R, Adams JE, Coleman RE, et al. Effect of anastrozole on bone mineral density: 5-year results from the anastrozole, tamoxifen, alone or in combination trial 18233230. J Clin Oncol. 26(7):1051-7, 2008.
  384. Maunsell E, Goss PE, Chlebowski RT, et al. Quality of life in MAP.3 (Mammary Prevention 3): a randomized, placebo-controlled trial evaluating exemestane for prevention of breast cancer. J Clin Oncol. 32(14):1427-36, 2014.
  385. Brandberg Y, Sandelin K, Erikson S, et al. Psychological reactions, quality of life, and body image after bilateral prophylactic mastectomy in women at high risk for breast cancer: a prospective 1-year follow-up study. J Clin Oncol. 26(24):3943-9, 2008.
  386. Carbine NE, Lostumbo L, Wallace J, Ko H. Risk-reducing mastectomy for the prevention of primary breast cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 4:CD002748, 2018.
  387. Srethbhakdi A, Brennan ME, Hamid G, Flitcroft K. Contralateral prophylactic mastectomy for unilateral breast cancer in women at average risk: Systematic review of patient reported outcomes. Psychooncology. 29(6):960-973, 2020.
  388. Cummings SR, Ensrud K, Delmas PD, et al. for the PEARL Study Investigators. Lasofoxifene in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 362(8):686-96, 2010.
  389. Visvanathan K1, Hurley P, Bantug E, et al. Use of pharmacologic interventions for breast cancer risk reduction: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline. J Clin Oncol. 31(23):2942-62, 2013.
  390. Mocellin S, Pilati P, Briarava M, Nitti D. Breast cancer chemoprevention: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Natl Cancer Inst. 108(2), djv318, 2016.
  391. Khan SA. Chapter 19: Management of Other High-Risk Patients, in Harris JR, Lippman ME, Morrow M, Osborne CK. Diseases of the Breast, 5th edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2014.
  392. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Nipple aspirate test is no substitute for mammogram. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/nipple-aspirate-test-no-substitute-mammogram, 2017.
  393. Velicer CM, Heckbert SR, Lampe JW, Potter JD, Robertson CA, Taplin SH. Antibiotic use in relation to the risk of breast cancer. JAMA. 291:827-35, 2004.
  394. Sorensen HT, Skriver MV, Friis S, McLaughlin JK, Blot WJ, Baron JA. Use of antibiotics and risk of breast cancer: a population-based case-control study. Br J Cancer. 92:594-6, 2005.
  395. Kaye JA, Jick H. Antibiotics and the risk of breast cancer. Epidemiology. 16:688-90, 2005.
  396. Garcia Rodriguez LA, Gonzalez-Perez A. Use of antibiotics and risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 161:616-9, 2005.
  397. Friedman GD, Oestreicher N, Chan J, Quesenberry CP Jr., Udaltsova N, Habel LA. Antibiotics and risk of breast cancer: up to 9 years of follow-up of 2.1 million women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 15(11):2102-6, 2006.
  398. Simin J, Tamimi RM, Engstrand L, Callens S, Brusselaers N. Antibiotic use and the risk of breast cancer: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Pharmacol Res. 160:105072, 2020.
  399. Fulton-Kehoe D, Rossing MA, Rutter C, Mandelson MT, Weiss NS. Use of antidepressant medications in relation to the incidence of breast cancer. Br J Cancer. 94(7):1071-8, 2006.
  400. Eom CS, Park SM, Cho KH. Use of antidepressants and the risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 136(3):635-45, 2012.
  401. Brown SB, Hankinson SE, Arcaro KF, Qian J, Reeves KW. Depression, antidepressant use, and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 25(1):158-64, 2016.
  402. Reeves KW, Okereke OI, Qian J, Tamimi RM, Eliassen AH, Hankinson SE. Depression, antidepressant use, and breast cancer risk in pre- and postmenopausal women: a prospective cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 27(3):306-314, 2018.
  403. Takkouche B, Regueira-Méndez C, Etminan M. Breast cancer and use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: a meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 100(20):1439-47, 2008.
  404. Algra AM, Rothwell PM. Effects of regular aspirin on long-term cancer incidence and metastasis: a systematic comparison of evidence from observational studies versus randomised trials. Lancet Oncol. 13(5):518-27, 2012.
  405. Qiao Y, Yang T, Gan Y, et al. Associations between aspirin use and the risk of cancers: a meta-analysis of observational studies. BMC Cancer. 18(1):288, 2018.
  406. Cao Y, Tan A. Aspirin might reduce the incidence of breast cancer: An updated meta-analysis of 38 observational studies. Medicine (Baltimore). 99(38):e21917, 2020.
  407. Ma S, Guo C, Sun C, et al. Aspirin use and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies from 1989 to 2019. Clin Breast Cancer. 21(6):552-565, 2021.
  408. Jacobs EJ, Thun MJ, Bain EB, Rodriguez C, Henley SJ, Calle EE. A large cohort study of long-term daily use of adult-strength aspirin and cancer incidence. J Natl Cancer Inst. 99(8):608-15, 2007.
  409. Eliassen AH, Chen WY, Spiegelman D, Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE. Use of aspirin, other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and acetaminophen and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women in the Nurses’ Health Study II. Arch Intern Med. 169(2):115-21, 2009.
  410. Zhang X, Smith-Warner SA, Collins LC, Rosner B, Willett WC, Hankinson SE. Use of aspirin, other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and acetaminophen and postmenopausal breast cancer incidence. J Clin Oncol. 30(28):3468-77, 2012.
  411. Kim S, Shore DL, Wilson LE, et al. Lifetime use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and breast cancer risk: results from a prospective study of women with a sister with breast cancer. BMC Cancer. 15:960, 2015.
  412. Zhong S, Chen L, Zhang X, Yu D, Tang J, Zhao J. Aspirin use and risk of breast cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 24(11):1645-55, 2015.
  413. Bertrand KA, Bethea TN, Gerlovin H, et al. Aspirin use and risk of breast cancer in African American women. Breast Cancer Res. 4;22(1):96, 2020.
  414. Cook NR, Lee IM, Zhang SM, Moorthy MV, Buring JE. Alternate-day, low-dose aspirin and cancer risk: long-term observational follow-up of a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 159(2):77-85, 2013.
  415. Egan KM, Newcomb PA, Titus-Ernstoff L, et al. The relation of breast size to breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women (United States). Cancer Causes Control. 10:115-8, 1999.
  416. Kusano AS, Trichopoulos D, Terry KL, Chen WY, Willett WC, Michels KB. A prospective study of breast size and premenopausal breast cancer incidence. Int J Cancer. 118(8):2031-4, 2006.
  417. Chen L, Malone KE, Li CI. Bra wearing not associated with breast cancer risk: a population-based case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 23(10):2181-5, 2014.
  418. Michels KB, Trichopoulos D, Rosner BA, et al. Being breastfed in infancy and breast cancer incidence in adult life: results from the two nurses’ health studies. Am J Epidemiol. 153(3):275-83, 2001.
  419. Wise LA, Titus-Ernstoff L, Newcomb PA, et al. Exposure to breast milk in infancy and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 20(7):1083-90, 2009.
  420. Yang TO, Cairns BJ, Green J2, et al. for the Million Women Study Collaborators. Adult cancer risk in women who were breastfed as infants: large UK prospective study. Eur J Epidemiol. 34(9):863-870, 2019.
  421. Barber LE, Bertrand KA, Rosenberg L, Battaglia TA, Palmer JR. Pre- and perinatal factors and incidence of breast cancer in the Black Women’s Health Study. Cancer Causes Control. 30(1):87-95, 2019.
  422. Diaz-Santana MV, O’Brien KM, D’Aloisio AA, Regalado G, Sandler DP, Weinberg CR. Perinatal and postnatal exposures and risk of young-onset breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 22(1):88, 2020.
  423. Moorman PG, Terry PD. Consumption of dairy products and the risk of breast cancer: a review of the literature. Am J Clin Nutr. 80:5-14, 2004.
  424. Ganmaa D, Sato A. The possible role of female sex hormones in milk from pregnant cows in the development of breast, ovarian and corpus uteri cancers. Med Hypotheses. 65:1028-37, 2005.
  425. Chlebowski RT, Johnson KC, Kooperberg C, et al. for the Women’s Health Initiative Investigators. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 100(22):1581-91, 2008.
  426. Shin MH, Holmes MD, Hankinson SE, Wu K, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Intake of dairy products, calcium, and vitamin D and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 94(17):1301-11, 2002.
  427. Pala V, Krogh V, Berrino F, et al. Meat, eggs, dairy products, and risk of breast cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. Am J Clin Nutr. 90(3):602-12, 2009.
  428. Dong JY, Zhang L, He K, Qin LQ. Dairy consumption and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 127(1):23-31, 2011.
  429. Genkinger JM, Makambi KH, Palmer JR, Rosenberg L, Adams-Campbell LL. Consumption of dairy and meat in relation to breast cancer risk in the Black Women’s Health Study. Cancer Causes Control. 24(4):675-84, 2013.
  430. Wu Y, Huang R, Wang M, et al. Dairy foods, calcium, and risk of breast cancer overall and for subtypes defined by estrogen receptor status: a pooled analysis of 21 cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 114(2):450-461, 2021.
  431. Cho E, Spiegelman D, Hunter DJ, et al. Premenopausal fat intake and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 95:1079-85, 2003.
  432. Linos E, Willett WC, Cho E, Frazier L. Adolescent diet in relation to breast cancer risk among premenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 19(3):689-96, 2010.
  433. Farvid MS, Eliassen AH, Cho E, Chen WY, Willett WC. Dairy consumption in adolescence and early adulthood and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 27(5):575-584, 2018.
  434. Gil H, Chen QY, Khil J, et al. Milk intake in early life and later cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Nutrients. 14(6):1233, 2022.
  435. Palmer JR, Wise LA, Hatch EE, et al. Prenatal diethylstilbestrol exposure and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 15(8):1509-14, 2006.
  436. Troisi R, Hatch EE, Titus-Ernstoff L, et al. Cancer risk in women prenatally exposed to diethylstilbestrol. Int J Cancer. 121(2):356-60, 2007.
  437. Xue F, Michels KB. Intrauterine factors and risk of breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of current evidence. Lancet Oncol. 8(12):1088-100, 2007.
  438. Verloop J, van Leeuwen FE, Helmerhorst TJ, van Boven HH, Rookus MA. Cancer risk in DES daughters. Cancer Causes Control. 21(7):999-1007, 2010.
  439. Hoover RN, Hyer M, Pfeiffer RM, et al. Adverse health outcomes in women exposed in utero to diethylstilbestrol. N Engl J Med. 365:1304-1314, 2011.
  440. Verheus M, Peeters PH, Rinaldi S, et al. Serum C-peptide levels and breast cancer risk: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Int J Cancer. 119(3):659-67, 2006.
  441. Gunter MJ, Hoover DR, Yu H, et al. Insulin, insulin-like growth factor-I, and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 101(1):48-60, 2009.
  442. Kabat GC, Kim M, Caan BJ, et al. Repeated measures of serum glucose and insulin in relation to postmenopausal breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 125(11):2704-10, 2009.
  443. Kabat GC, Kim MY, Lane DS, et al. Serum glucose and insulin and risk of cancers of the breast, endometrium, and ovary in postmenopausal women. Eur J Cancer Prev. 27(3):261-268, 2018.
  444. Smith-Warner SA, Speigelman D, Adami HO, et al. Types of dietary fat and breast cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Int J Cancer. 92:767-774, 2001.
  445. Boyd NF, Stone J, Vogt KN, Connelly BS, Martin LJ, Minkin S. Dietary fat and breast cancer risk revisited: a meta-analysis of the published literature. Br J Cancer. 89(9):1672-85, 2003.
  446. Kim EHJ, Willett WC, Colditz GA, et al. Dietary fat and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in a 20-year follow-up. Am J Epidemiol. 164(10):990-7, 2006.
  447. Sieri S, Krogh V, Ferrari P, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 88(5):1304-12, 2008.
  448. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Cairns BJ, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer: comparison of results from food diaries and food-frequency questionnaires in the UK Dietary Cohort Consortium. Am J Clin Nutr. 94(4):1043-52, 2011.
  449. Farvid MS, Cho E, Chen WY, Eliassen AH, Willett WC. Premenopausal dietary fat in relation to pre- and post-menopausal breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 145(1):255-65, 2014.
  450. Chlebowski RT, Aragaki AK, Anderson GL, et al. for the Women’s Health Initiative. Dietary modification and breast cancer mortality: long-term follow-up of the Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Trial. J Clin Oncol. 38(13):1419-1428, 2020.
  451. Jensen A, Sharif H, Svare EI, Frederiksen K, Kjaer SK. Risk of breast cancer after exposure to fertility drugs: results from a large Danish cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 16(7):1400-7, 2007.
  452. Silva Idos S, Wark PA, McCormack VA, et al. Ovulation-stimulation drugs and cancer risks: a long-term follow-up of a British cohort. Br J Cancer. 100(11):1824-31, 2009.
  453. Fei C, Deroo LA, Sandler DP, Weinberg CR. Fertility drugs and young-onset breast cancer: results from the two sister study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 104(13):1021-7, 2012.
  454. Brinton LA, Scoccia B, Moghissi KS, et al. Long-term relationship of ovulation-stimulating drugs to breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 23(4):584-93, 2014.
  455. Gennari A, Costa M, Puntoni M, et al. Breast cancer incidence after hormonal treatments for infertility: systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based studies. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 150(2):405-13, 2015.
  456. van den Belt-Dusebout AW, Spaan M, Lambalk CB, et al. Ovarian stimulation for in vitro fertilization and long-term risk of breast cancer. JAMA. 316(3):300-12, 2016.
  457. Reigstad MM, Storeng R, Myklebust TÅ, et al. Cancer risk in women treated with fertility drugs according to parity status-a registry-based cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 26(6):953-962, 2017.
  458. Guleria S, Kjær SK, Albieri V, Frederiksen K, Jensen A. A cohort study of breast cancer risk after 20 years of follow-up of women treated with fertility drugs. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 28(12):1986-1992, 2019.
  459. Terry P, Jain M, Miller AB, Howe GR, Rohan TE. No association among total dietary fiber, fiber fractions, and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 11(11):1507-8, 2002.
  460. Holmes MD, Liu S, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Willett WC. Dietary carbohydrates, fiber, and breast cancer risk. Am J Epidemiol. 159(8):732-9, 2004.
  461. Shikany JM, Redden DT, Neuhouser ML, et al. Dietary glycemic load, glycemic index, and carbohydrate and risk of breast cancer in the Women’s Health Initiative. Nutr Cancer. 63(6):899-907, 2011.
  462. Farvid MS, Spence ND, Holmes MD, Barnett JB. Fiber consumption and breast cancer incidence: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Cancer. 126(13):3061-3075, 2020.
  463. Feigelson HS, Jonas CR, Robertson AS, McCullough ML, Thun MJ, Calle EE. Alcohol, folate, methionine, and risk of incident breast cancer in the American Cancer Society Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 12(2):161-4, 2003.
  464. Larsson SC, Bergkvist L, Wolk A. Folate intake and risk of breast cancer by estrogen and progesterone receptor status in a Swedish cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 17(12):3444-9, 2008.
  465. Neuhouser ML, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Thomson C, et al. Multivitamin use and risk of cancer and cardiovascular disease in the Women’s Health Initiative cohorts. Arch Intern Med. 169(3):294-304, 2009.
  466. Qin X, Cui Y, Shen L, et al. Folic acid supplementation and cancer risk: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Cancer. 133(5):1033-41, 2013.
  467. Vollset SE, Clarke R, Lewington S, et al. for the B-Vitamin Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration. Effects of folic acid supplementation on overall and site-specific cancer incidence during the randomised trials: meta-analyses of data on 50,000 individuals. Lancet. 381(9871):1029-36, 2013.
  468. Tio M, Andrici J, Eslick GD. Folate intake and the risk of breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 145(2):513-24, 2014.
  469. Jung S, Wang M, Anderson K, et al. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer risk by estrogen receptor status: in a pooled analysis of 20 studies. Int J Epidemiol. 45(3):916-28, 2016.
  470. Matejcic M, de Batlle J, Ricci C, et al. Biomarkers of folate and vitamin B12 and breast cancer risk: report from the EPIC cohort. Int J Cancer. 140(6):1246-1259, 2017.
  471. Houghton SC, Eliassen AH, Zhang SM, et al. Plasma B-vitamin and one-carbon metabolites and risk of breast cancer before and after folic acid fortification in the United States. Int J Cancer. 144(8):1929-1940, 2019.
  472. Sesso HD, Rist PM, Aragaki AK, et al. for the COSMOS Research Group. Multivitamins in the prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease: the COcoa Supplement and Multivitamin Outcomes Study (COSMOS) randomized clinical trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 115(6):1501-1510, 2022.
  473. Takkouche B, Etminan M, Montes-Martinez A. Personal use of hair dyes and risk of cancer: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 293(20):2516-25, 2005.
  474. Zhang Y, Birmann BM, Han J, et al. Personal use of permanent hair dyes and cancer risk and mortality in US women: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 370:m2942, 2020.
  475. Eberle CE, Sandler DP, Taylor KW, White AJ. Hair dye and chemical straightener use and breast cancer risk in a large US population of black and white women. Int J Cancer. 147(2):383-391, 2020.
  476. White AJ, Gregoire AM, Taylor KW, et al. Adolescent use of hair dyes, straighteners and perms in relation to breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer. 148(9):2255-2263, 2021.
  477. Rosenberg L, Boggs DA, Adams-Campbell LL, Palmer JR. Hair relaxers not associated with breast cancer risk: evidence from the black women’s health study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 16(5):1035-7, 2007.
  478. Llanos AAM, Rabkin A, Bandera EV, et al. Hair product use and breast cancer risk among African American and White women. Carcinogenesis. 38(9):883-892, 2017.
  479. Coogan PF, Rosenberg L, Palmer JR, Cozier YC, Lenzy YM, Bertrand KA. Hair product use and breast cancer incidence in the Black Women’s Health Study. Carcinogenesis. 42(7):924-930, 2021.
  480. Zheng W, Gustafson DR, Sinha R, et al. Well-done meat intake and the risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 90:1724-9, 1998.
  481. Alexander DD, Morimoto LM, Mink PJ, Cushing CA. A review and meta-analysis of red and processed meat consumption and breast cancer. Nutr Res Rev. 23(2):349-65, 2010.
  482. Farvid MS, Stern MC, Norat T, et al. Consumption of red and processed meat and breast cancer incidence: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int J Cancer. 143(11):2787-2799, 2018.
  483. Anderson JJ, Darwis NDM, Mackay DF, et al. Red and processed meat consumption and breast cancer: UK Biobank cohort study and meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer. 90:73-82, 2018.
  484. Farvid MS, Sidahmed E, Spence ND, Angua KM, Rosner BA, Barnett JB. Consumption of red meat and processed meat and cancer incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur J Epidemiol. 36(9):937-951, 2021.
  485. Farvid MS, Cho E, Chen WY, Eliassen AH, Willett WC. Adolescent meat intake and breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer. 136(8):1909-20, 2015.
  486. Kabat GC, Cross AJ, Park Y, et al. Meat intake and meat preparation in relation to risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Int J Cancer. 124(10):2430-5, 2009.
  487. Ferrucci LM, Cross AJ, Graubard BI, et al. Intake of meat, meat mutagens, and iron and the risk of breast cancer in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. Br J Cancer. 101(1):178-84, 2009.
  488. Wu K, Sinha R, Holmes MD, Giovannucci E, Willett W, Cho E. Meat mutagens and breast cancer in postmenopausal women–a cohort analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 19(5):1301-10, 2010.
  489. Fu Z, Deming SL, Fair AM, et al. Well-done meat intake and meat-derived mutagen exposures in relation to breast cancer risk: the Nashville Breast Health Study. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 129(3):919-28, 2011.
  490. Parada H Jr, Steck SE, Bradshaw PT, et al. Grilled, barbecued, and smoked meat intake and survival following breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 109(6):djw299, 2017.
  491. Kvaskoff M, Bijon A, Mesrine S, et al. Association between melanocytic nevi and risk of breast diseases: The French E3N prospective cohort. PLoS Med. 11(6):e1001660, 2014.
  492. Li X, Wu W, Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Gao X, Han J. Cutaneous nevi and internal cancer risk: Results from two large prospective cohorts of US women. Int J Cancer. 147(1):114-20, 2020.
  493. Zhang M, Zhang X, Qureshi AA, Eliassen AH, Hankinson SE, Han J. Association between cutaneous nevi and breast cancer in the Nurses’ Health Study: a prospective cohort study. PLoS Med. 11(6):e1001659, 2014.
  494. Darbre PD, Harvey PW. Paraben esters: review of recent studies of endocrine toxicity, absorption, esterase and human exposure, and discussion of potential human health risks. J Appl Toxicol. 28(5):561-78, 2008.
  495. Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel. Final amended report on the safety assessment of methylparaben, ethylparaben, propylparaben, isopropylparaben, butylparaben, isobutylparaben, and benzylparaben as used in cosmetic products. Int J Toxicol. 27 Suppl 4:1-82, 2008.
  496. Cosmetic Ingredient Review. 2012 Annual Report. Washington, DC. http://www.cir-safety.org/sites/default/files/2012%20CIR%20Annual%20Report.pdf, 2012.
  497. Cosmetic Ingredient Review. Safety assessment of parabens used in cosmetics (draft tentative report for Panel review, 2017). Washington, DC. http://www.cir-safety.org/sites/default/files/paraben_web.pdf, 2017.
  498. Cosmetic Ingredient Review. Safety assessment of parabens used in cosmetics (draft tentative report for Panel review, 2018). Washington, DC. https://www.cir-safety.org/sites/default/files/parabens.pdf, 2018.
  499. Cosmetic Ingredient Review. Amended safety assessment of parabens used in cosmetics (draft final amended report for Panel review, 2019). Washington, DC. https://www.cir-safety.org/sites/default/files/Parabens_1.pdf, 2019.
  500. Cherian P, Zhu J, Bergfeld WF, et al. Amended safety assessment of parabens as used in cosmetics. Int J Toxicol. 39(1_suppl):5S-97S, 2020.
  501. Wu AH, Franke AA, Wilkens LR, et al. Risk of breast cancer and prediagnostic urinary excretion of bisphenol A, triclosan and parabens: The Multiethnic Cohort Study. Int J Cancer. 149(7):1426-1434, 2021.
  502. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Bisphenol A (BPA): use in food contact application. https://www.fda.gov/food/food-additives-petitions/bisphenol-bpa-use-food-contact-application, 2018.
  503. Trabert B, Falk RT, Figueroa JD, et al. Urinary bisphenol A-glucuronide and postmenopausal breast cancer in Poland. Cancer Causes Control. 25(12):1587-93, 2014.
  504. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Questions and answers on bisphenol A (BPA) use in food contact applications. http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm355155.htm, 2018.
  505. Salamanca-Fernández E, Rodríguez-Barranco M, Amiano P, et al. Bisphenol-A exposure and risk of breast and prostate cancer in the Spanish European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition study. Environ Health. 20(1):88, 2021.
  506. Pirie K, Beral V, Peto R, Roddam A, Reeves G, Green J for the Million Women Study Collaborators. Passive smoking and breast cancer in never smokers: prospective study and meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol. 37(5):1069-79, 2008.
  507. Luo J, Margolis KL, Wactawski-Wende J, et al. Association of active and passive smoking with risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women: a prospective cohort study. BMJ. 342:d1016, 2011.
  508. Rosenberg L, Boggs DA, Bethea TN, Wise LA, Adams-Campbell LL, Palmer JR. A prospective study of smoking and breast cancer risk among African-American women. Cancer Causes Control. 24(12):2207-15, 2013.
  509. White AJ, D’Aloisio AA, Nichols HB, DeRoo LA, Sandler DP. Breast cancer and exposure to tobacco smoke during potential windows of susceptibility. Cancer Causes Control. 28(7):667-675, 2017.
  510. Dossus L, Boutron-Ruault MC, Kaaks R, et al. for the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. Active and passive cigarette smoking and breast cancer risk: results from the EPIC cohort. Int J Cancer. 134(8):1871-88, 2014.
  511. Duffy C, Perez K, Partridge A. Implications of phytoestrogen intake for breast cancer. CA Cancer J Clin. 57(5):260-77, 2007.
  512. Trock BJ, Hilakivi-Clarke L, Clarke R. Meta-analysis of soy intake and breast cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst. 98(7):459-71, 2006.
  513. Wu AH, Yu MC, Tseng CC, Pike MC. Epidemiology of soy exposures and breast cancer risk. Br J Cancer. 98(1):9-14, 2008.
  514. Lee SA, Shu XO, Li H, et al. Adolescent and adult soy food intake and breast cancer risk: results from the Shanghai Women’s Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 89(6):1920-6, 2009.
  515. Dong JY, Qin LQ. Soy isoflavones consumption and risk of breast cancer incidence or recurrence: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 125(2): p. 315-23, 2011.
  516. Baglia ML, Zheng W, Li H, et al. The association of soy food consumption with the risk of subtype of breast cancers defined by hormone receptor and HER2 status. Int J Cancer. 139(4):742-8, 2016.
  517. Dunneram Y, Greenwood DC, Cade JE. Diet and risk of breast, endometrial and ovarian cancer: UK Women’s Cohort Study. Br J Nutr. 122(5):564-574, 2019.
  518. Wei Y, Jun Lv J, Guo Y, et al. for the China Kadoorie Biobank Collaborative Group. Soy intake and breast cancer risk: a prospective study of 300,000 Chinese women and a dose-response meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol. 35(6):567-578, 2020.
  519. Fraser GE, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Orlich M, Mashchak A, Sirirat R, Knutsen S. Dairy, soy, and risk of breast cancer: those confounded milks. Int J Epidemiol. 2020.
  520. Shirabe R, Saito E, Sawada N, et al. for the JPHC Study Group. Fermented and nonfermented soy foods and the risk of breast cancer in a Japanese population-based cohort study. Cancer Med. 10(2):757-771, 2021.
  521. Lillberg K, Verkasalo PK, Kaprio J, Teppo L, Helenius H, Koskenvuo M. Stressful life events and risk of breast cancer in 10,808 women: a cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 157:415-23, 2003.
  522. Schernhammer ES, Hankinson SE, Rosner B, et al. Job stress and breast cancer risk: the Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 160:1079-86, 2004.
  523. Kroenke CH, Hankinson SE, Schernhammer ES, Colditz GA, Kawachi I, Holmes MD. Caregiving stress, endogenous sex steroid hormone levels, and breast cancer incidence. Am J Epidemiol. 159:1019-27, 2004.
  524. Surtees PG, Wainwright NW, Luben RN, Khaw KT, Bingham SA. No evidence that social stress is associated with breast cancer incidence. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 120(1):169-74, 2010.
  525. Heikkilä K, Nyberg ST, Theorell T, et al. for the IPD-Work Consortium. Work stress and risk of cancer: meta-analysis of 5700 incident cancer events in 116,000 European men and women. BMJ. 346:f165, 2013.
  526. Schoemaker MJ, Jones ME, Wright LB, et al. Psychological stress, adverse life events and breast cancer incidence: a cohort investigation in 106,000 women in the United Kingdom. Breast Cancer Res. 18(1):72, 2016.
  527. Butow P, Price M, Coll J, et al. for the kConFab investigators, kConFab Clinical Follow-Up investigators and the kConFab psychosocial investigators. Does stress increase risk of breast cancer? A 15-year prospective study. Psychooncology. 27(8):1908-1914, 2018.
  528. Engel P, Fagherazzi G, Mesrine S, Boutron-Ruault MC, Clavel-Chapelon F. Joint effects of dietary vitamin D and sun exposure on breast cancer risk: results from the French E3N cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 20(1):187-98, 2011.
  529. Chen P, Hu P, Xie D, Qin Y, Wang F, Wang H. Meta-analysis of vitamin D, calcium and the prevention of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 121(2):469-77, 2010.
  530. Abbas S, Linseisen J, Rohrmann S, et al. Dietary intake of vitamin d and calcium and breast cancer risk in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Nutr Cancer. 65(2):178-87, 2013.
  531. Cauley JA, Chlebowski RT, Wactawski-Wende J, et al. for the Women’s Health Initiative Investigators. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and health outcomes five years after active intervention ended: the Women’s Health Initiative. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 22(11):915-29, 2013.
  532. Lappe J, Watson P, Travers-Gustafson D, et al. Effect of vitamin D and calcium supplementation on cancer incidence in older women: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 317(12):1234-1243, 2017.
  533. Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al. for the VITAL Research Group. Vitamin D supplements and prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 380(1):33-44, 2019.
  534. Zhou L, Chen B, Sheng L, Turner A. The effect of vitamin D supplementation on the risk of breast cancer: a trial sequential meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 182(1):1-8, 2020.
  535. Scarmo S, Afanasyeva Y, Lenner P, et al. Circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of breast cancer: a nested case-control study. Breast Cancer Res. 15(1):R15, 2013.
  536. Kühn T, Kaaks R, Becker S, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and the risk of breast cancer in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition: A nested case-control study. Int J Cancer. 133(7):1689-700, 2013.
  537. Chung M, Lee J, Terasawa T, Lau J, Trikalinos TA. Vitamin D with or without calcium supplementation for prevention of cancer and fractures: an updated meta-analysis for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med. 155(12):827-38, 2011.
  538. Kim Y, Je Y. Vitamin D intake, blood 25(OH)D levels, and breast cancer risk or mortality: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer. 110(11):2772-84, 2014.
  539. Visvanathan K, Mondul AM, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, et al. Circulating vitamin D and breast cancer risk: an international pooling project of 17 cohorts. Eur J Epidemiol. 38(1):11-29, 2023.
  540. Beral V, Bull D, Doll R, et al. for the Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and abortion: collaborative reanalysis of data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 83 000 women with breast cancer from 16 countries. Lancet. 363:1007-16, 2004.
  541. National Cancer Institute. Abortion, miscarriage and breast cancer risk: 2003 workshop. https://www.cancer.gov/types/breast/abortion-miscarriage-risk#summary-report, 2010.
  542. National Cancer Institute. Reproductive history and cancer risk. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/hormones/reproductive-history-fact-sheet, 2016.
  543. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Induced abortion and breast cancer risk (reaffirmed in 2021). https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/committee-opinion/articles/2009/06/induced-abortion-and-breast-cancer-risk, 2021.
  544. Brind J, Chinchilli VM, Severs WB and Summy-Long J. Induced abortion as an independent risk factor for breast cancer: a comprehensive review and meta-analysis. J Epidemiol Community Health. 50:481-96, 1996.
  545. Melbye M, Wohlfahrt J, Olsen JH, et al. Induced abortion and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med. 336:81-5, 1997.
  546. Lazovich D, Thompson JA, Mink PJ, et al. Induced abortion and breast cancer risk. Epidemiology. 11:76-80, 2000.
  547. Paoletti X, Clavel-Chapelon F. Induced and spontaneous abortion and breast cancer risk: results from the E3N cohort study. Int J Cancer. 106(2):270-6, 2003.
  548. Palmer JR, Wise LA, Adams-Campbell LL, Rosenberg L. A prospective study of induced abortion and breast cancer in African-American women. Cancer Causes Control. 15(2):105-11, 2004.
  549. Reeves GK, Kan SW, Key T, et al. Breast cancer risk in relation to abortion: Results from the EPIC study. Int J Cancer. 119(7):1741-5, 2006.
  550. Rosenblatt KA, Gao DL, Ray RM, et al. Induced abortions and the risk of all cancers combined and site-specific cancers in Shanghai. Cancer Causes Control. 17(10):1275-80, 2006.
  551. Michels KB, Xue F, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Induced and spontaneous abortion and incidence of breast cancer among young women: a prospective cohort study. Arch Intern Med. 167(8):814-20, 2007.
  552. Henderson KD, Sullivan-Halley J, Reynolds P, et al. Incomplete pregnancy is not associated with breast cancer risk: the California Teachers Study. Contraception. 77(6):391-6, 2008.
  553. Braüner CM, Overvad K, Tjønneland A, Attermann J. Induced abortion and breast cancer among parous women: a Danish cohort study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 92(6):700-5, 2013.
  554. Guo J, Huang Y, Yang L, et al. Association between abortion and breast cancer: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis based on prospective studies. Cancer Causes Control. 26(6):811-9, 2015.
  555. Larsson SC, Akesson A, Wolk A. Long-term dietary acrylamide intake and breast cancer risk in a prospective cohort of Swedish women. Am J Epidemiol. 169(3):376-81, 2009.
  556. Wilson KM, Mucci LA, Rosner BA, Willett WC. A prospective study on dietary acrylamide intake and the risk for breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancers. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 19(10):2503-15, 2010.
  557. Burley VJ, Greenwood DC, Hepworth SJ, et al. Dietary acrylamide intake and risk of breast cancer in the UK women’s cohort. Br J Cancer. 103(11):1749-54, 2010.
  558. Pelucchi C, Bosetti C, Galeone C, La Vecchia C. Dietary acrylamide and cancer risk: An updated meta-analysis. Int J Cancer. 136(12):2912-22, 2015.
  559. Kotemori A, Ishihara J, Zha L, et al. for the JPHC Study Group. Dietary acrylamide intake and risk of breast cancer: The Japan Public Health Center-based Prospective Study. Cancer Sci. 109(3):843-853, 2018.
  560. Adani G, Filippini T, Wise LA, Halldorsson TI, Blaha L, Vinceti M. Dietary intake of acrylamide and risk of breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancers: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 29(6):1095-1106, 2020.
  561. Millikan R, De Voto E, Duell EJ, et al. Dichlorophenyldichloroethene, polychlorinated biphenyls, and breast cancer among African-American and white women in North Carolina. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 9:1233-1240, 2000.
  562. Laden F, Hankinson SE, Wolff MS, et al. Plasma organochlorine levels and the risk of breast cancer: an extended follow-up in the Nurses’ Health Study. Int J Cancer. 91(4):568-74, 2001.
  563. Laden F, Collman G, Iwamoto K, et al. 1,1-Dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene and polychlorinated biphenyls and breast cancer: combined analysis of five U.S. studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. 93:768-76, 2001.
  564. Gammon MD, Wolff MS, Neugut AI, et al. Environmental toxins and breast cancer on Long Island. II. Organochlorine compound levels in blood. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 11:686-97, 2002.
  565. Lopez-Cervantes M, Torres-Sanchez L, Tobias A, Lopez-Carrillo L. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane burden and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of the epidemiologic evidence. Environ Health Perspect. 112(2):207-14, 2004.
  566. Raaschou-Nielsen O, Pavuk M, LeBlanc A, et al. Adipose organochlorine concentrations and risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal Danish women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 14(1):67-74, 2005.
  567. Ingber SZ, Buser MC, Pohl HR, Abadin HG, Murray HE, Scinicariello F. DDT/DDE and breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 67(3):421-33, 2013.
  568. Zhang J, Huang Y, Wang X, Lin K, Wu K. Environmental polychlorinated biphenyl exposure and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis of observational studies. PLoS One. 10(11):e0142513, 2015.
  569. Fiolet T, Casagrande C, Nicolas G, et al. Dietary intakes of dioxins and polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) and breast cancer risk in 9 European countries. Environ Int. 163:107213, 2020.
  570. Clarke CA, Glaser SL, West DW, et al. Breast cancer incidence and mortality trends in an affluent population: Marin County, California, USA, 1990-1999. Breast Cancer Res. 4: R13, 2002.
  571. Chen L, Malone KE, Li CI. Bra wearing not associated with breast cancer risk: a population-based case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 23(10):2181-5, 2014.
  572. Hsieh CC, Trichopoulos D. Breast size, handedness and breast cancer risk. Eur J Cancer. 27:131-5, 1991.
  573. Bryant H, Brasher P. Breast implants and breast cancer—reanalysis of a linkage study. N Engl J Med. 332(23):1535-9, 1995.
  574. Hoshaw SJ, Klein PJ, Clark BD, Cook RR, Perkins LL. Breast implants and cancer: causation, delayed detection, and survival. Plast Reconstr Surg. 107(6):1393-407, 2001.
  575. McLaughlin JK, Lipworth L, Fryzek JP, et al. Long-term cancer risk among Swedish women with cosmetic breast implants: an update of a nationwide study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 98(8):557-60, 2006.
  576. Brisson J, Holowaty EJ, Villeneuve PJ, et al. Cancer incidence in a cohort of Ontario and Quebec women having bilateral breast augmentation. Int J Cancer. 118(11):2854-62, 2006.
  577. Deapen DM, Hirsch EM, Brody GS. Cancer risk among Los Angeles women with cosmetic breast implants. Plast Reconstr Surg. 119(7):1987-92, 2007.
  578. Lipworth L, Tarone RE, Friis S, et al. Cancer among Scandinavian women with cosmetic breast implants: a pooled long-term follow-up study. Int J Cancer. 124(2):490-3, 2009.
  579. Noels EC, Lapid O, Lindeman JH, Bastiaannet E. Breast implants and the risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Aesthet Surg J. 35(1):55-62, 2015.
  580. Brinton LA, Brown SL, Colton T, et al. Characteristics of a population of women with breast implants compared with women seeking other types of plastic surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg. 105(3):919-27, 2000.
  581. Gidengil CA, Predmore Z, Mattke S, van Busum K, Kim B. Breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a systematic review. Plast Reconstr Surg. 135(3):713-20, 2015.
  582. Leberfinger AN, Behar BJ, Williams NC, et al. Breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma: a systematic review. JAMA Surg. 152(12):1161-1168, 2017.
  583. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma (BIA-ALCL). https://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/ImplantsandProsthetics/BreastImplants/ucm239995.htm, 2019.
  584. American Society of Plastic Surgeons. BIA-ALCL physician resources. https://www.plasticsurgery.org/for-medical-professionals/health-policy/bia-alcl-physician-resources, 2022.
  585. de Boer M, van Leeuwen FE, Hauptmann M, et al. Breast implants and the risk of anaplastic large-cell lymphoma in the breast. JAMA Oncol. 4(3):335-341, 2018.
  586. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Medical device reports of breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma. https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/breast-implants/medical-device-reports-breast-implant-associated-anaplastic-large-cell-lymphoma, 2022.
  587. Ganmaa D, Willett WC, Li TY, et al. Coffee, tea, caffeine and risk of breast cancer: a 22-year follow-up. Int J Cancer. 122(9):2071-6, 2008.
  588. Ishitani K, Lin J, Manson JE, Buring JE, Zhang SM. Caffeine consumption and the risk of breast cancer in a large prospective cohort of women. Arch Intern Med. 168(18):2022-31, 2008.
  589. Boggs DA, Palmer JR, Stampfer MJ, Spiegelman D, Adams-Campbell LL, Rosenberg L. Tea and coffee intake in relation to risk of breast cancer in the Black Women’s Health Study. Cancer Causes Control. 21(11):1941-8, 2010.
  590. Gierach GL, Freedman ND, Andaya A, et al. Coffee intake and breast cancer risk in the NIH-AARP diet and health study cohort. Int J Cancer. 131(2):452-60, 2012.
  591. Hashibe M, Galeone C, Buys SS, et al. Coffee, tea, caffeine intake, and the risk of cancer in the PLCO cohort. Br J Cancer. 113(5):809-16, 2015.
  592. Yaghjyan L, Rich S, Mao L, Mai V, Egan KM. Interactions of coffee consumption and postmenopausal hormone use in relation to breast cancer risk in UK Biobank. Cancer Causes Control. 29(6):519-525, 2018.
  593. Dunneram Y, Greenwood DC, Cade JE. Diet and risk of breast, endometrial and ovarian cancer: UK Women’s Cohort Study. Br J Nutr. 122(5):564-574, 2019.
  594. Sinnadurai S, Okabayashi S, Kawamura T, et al. for The JACC Study Group. Intake of common alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages and breast cancer risk among Japanese women: findings from the Japan Collaborative Cohort Study. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 21(6):1701-1707, 2020.
  595. Zhang D, Nichols HB, Troester M, et al. Tea consumption and breast cancer risk in a cohort of women with family history of breast cancer. Int J Cancer. 147(3):876-886, 2020.
  596. Gapstur SM, Gaudet MM, Wang Y, et al. Coffee consumption and invasive breast cancer incidence among postmenopausal women in the Cancer Prevention Study-II Nutrition Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 29(11):2383-2386, 2020.
  597. Zheng KH, Zhu K, Wactawski-Wende J, et al. Caffeine intake from coffee and tea and invasive breast cancer incidence among postmenopausal women in the Women’s Health Initiative. Int J Cancer. 149(12):2032-2044, 2021.
  598. Jiang W, Wu Y, Jiang X. Coffee and caffeine intake and breast cancer risk: An updated dose-response meta-analysis of 37 published studies. Gynecol Oncol. 129(3):620-9, 2013.
  599. Bhoo-Pathy N, Peeters PH, Uiterwaal CS, et al. Coffee and tea consumption and risk of pre- and postmenopausal breast cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort study. Breast Cancer Res. 17(1):15, 2015.
  600. Oh JK, Sandin S, Ström P, Löf M, Adami HO, Weiderpass E. Prospective study of breast cancer in relation to coffee, tea, and caffeine in Sweden. Int J Cancer. 137(8):1979-89, 2015.
  601. Lafranconi A, Micek A, De Paoli P, et al. Coffee intake decreases risk of postmenopausal breast cancer: a dose-response meta-analysis on prospective cohort studies. Nutrients. 10(2): E112, 2018.
  602. Sánchez-Quesada C, Romanos-Nanclares A, Navarro AM, et al. Coffee consumption and breast cancer risk in the SUN project. Eur J Nutr. 59(8):3461-3471, 2020.
  603. Yu F, Jin Z, Jiang H, et al. Tea consumption and the risk of five major cancers: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMC Cancer. 14:197, 2014.
  604. Farvid MS, Spence ND, Rosner BA, Willett WC, Eliassen AH, Holmes MD. Post-diagnostic coffee and tea consumption and breast cancer survival Br J Cancer. 124(11):1873-1881, 2021.
  605. Moulder JE, Foster KR, Erdreich LS, McNamee JP. Mobile phones, mobile phone base stations and cancer: a review. Int J Radiat Biol. 81:189-203, 2005.
  606. Benson VS, Pirie K, Schüz J, et al. for the Million Women Study Collaborators. Mobile phone use and risk of brain neoplasms and other cancers: prospective study. Int J Epidemiol. 42(3):792-802, 2013.
  607. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Review of published literature between 2008 and 2018 of relevance to radiofrequency radiation and cancer. https://www.fda.gov/media/135043/download, 2020.
  608. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Do cell phones pose a health hazard? https://www.fda.gov/radiation-emitting-products/cell-phones/do-cell-phones-pose-health-hazard, 2022.
  609. Mirick DK, Davis S and Thomas DB. Antiperspirant use and the risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 94:1578-80, 2002.
  610. Gikas PD, Mansfield L, Mokbel K. Do underarm cosmetics cause breast cancer? Int J Fertil Womens Med. 49:212-4, 2004.
  611. Laden F, Neas LM, Tobert PE, et al. Electric blanket usage in the Nurses’ Health Study. Am J Epidemiol. 152(1):41-49, 2000.
  612. Forssén UM, Rutqvist LE, Ahlbom A, Feychting M. Occupational magnetic fields and female breast cancer: a case-control study using Swedish population registers and new exposure data. Am J Epidemiol. 161(3):250-9, 2005.
  613. Johansen C, Nielsen OR, Olsen JH, Schüz J. Risk for leukaemia and brain and breast cancer among Danish utility workers: a second follow-up. Occup Environ Med. 64(11):782-4, 2007.
  614. Chen C, Ma X, Zhong M, Yu Z. Extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields exposure and female breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis based on 24,338 cases and 60,628 controls. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 123(2):569-76, 2010.
  615. Pavia M, Hsieh CC, Ekbom A, Adami HO, Trichopoulos D. Handedness, age at menarche, and age at menopause. Obstet Gynecol. 83:579-82, 1994.
  616. Cerhan JR, Folsom AR, Potter JD, Prineas RJ. Handedness and mortality risk in older women. Am J Epidemiol. 140:368-74, 1994.
  617. Stellman SD, Wynder EL, DeRose DJ, Muscat JE. The epidemiology of left-handedness in a hospital population. Ann Epidemiol. 7:167-71, 1997.
  618. Perkins CI, Hotes J, Kohler BA, Howe HL. Association between breast cancer laterality and tumor location, United States, 1994-1998. Cancer Causes Control. 15:637-45, 2004.
  619. Sosa M, Saavedra P, Alonso A, Vega V, Vicente E, Vilchez M. Left-handedness is not associated with breast cancer. Breast J. 26(12):2449-2451, 2020.
  620. Winter AC, Rice MS, Fortner RT, Eliassen AH, Kurth T, Tamimi RM. Migraine and breast cancer risk: a prospective cohort study and meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 107(1), 2015.
  621. American Cancer Society. How your diet may affect your risk of breast cancer. https://www.cancer.org/latest-news/how-your-diet-may-affect-your-risk-of-breast-cancer.html, 2018.
  622. National Cancer Institute. Common cancer myths and misconceptions. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/myths, 2022.
  623. Makarem N, Bandera EV, Lin Y, Jacques PF, Hayes RB, Parekh N. Consumption of sugars, sugary foods, and sugary beverages in relation to adiposity-related cancer risk in the Framingham Offspring Cohort (1991-2013). Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 11(6):347-358, 2018.
  624. Arthur RS, Kirsh VA, Mossavar-Rahmani Y, Xue X, Rohan TE. Sugar-containing beverages and their association with risk of breast, endometrial, ovarian and colorectal cancers among Canadian women. Cancer Epidemiol. 70:101855, 2021.
  625. Farvid MS, Spence ND, Rosner BA, et al. Consumption of sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverages and breast cancer survival. Cancer. 127(15):2762-2773, 2021.
  626. Biro FM, Deardorff J. Identifying opportunities for cancer prevention during preadolescence and adolescence: puberty as a window of susceptibility. J Adolesc Health. 52(5 Suppl):S15-20, 2013.
  627. Colditz GA, Bohlke K, Berkey CS. Breast cancer risk accumulation starts early: prevention must also. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 145(3):567-79, 2014.
  628. Romundstad PR, Vatten LJ, Nilsen TI, et al. Birth size in relation to age at menarche and adolescent body size: implications for breast cancer risk. Int J Cancer. 105(3):400-3, 2003.
  629. Morris DH, Jones ME, Schoemaker MJ, Ashworth A, Swerdlow AJ. Determinants of age at menarche in the UK: analyses from the Breakthrough Generations Study. Br J Cancer. 103(11):1760-4, 2010.
  630. D’Aloisio AA, DeRoo LA, Baird DD, Weinberg CR, Sandler DP. Prenatal and infant exposures and age at menarche. Epidemiology. 24(2):277-84, 2013.
  631. Haraldsdottir A, Steingrimsdottir L, Maskarinec G, et al. Growth rate in childhood and adolescence and the risk of breast and prostate cancer: a population-based study. Am J Epidemiol. 191(2):320-330, 2022.
  632. Baer HJ, Tworoger SS, Hankinson SE, Willett WC. Body fatness at young ages and risk of breast cancer throughout life. Am J Epidemiol. 171(11):1183-94, 2010.
  633. Harris HR, Tamimi RM, Willett WC, Hankinson SE, Michels KB. Body size across the life course, mammographic density, and risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 174(8):909-18, 2011.
  634. Fagherazzi G, Guillas G, Boutron-Ruault MC, Clavel-Chapelon F, Mesrine S. Body shape throughout life and the risk for breast cancer at adulthood in the French E3N cohort. Eur J Cancer Prev. 22(1):29-37, 2013.
  635. Keinan-Boker L, Levine H, Derazne E, Molina-Hazan V, Kark JD. Measured adolescent body mass index and adult breast cancer in a cohort of 951,480 women. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 158(1):157-67, 2016.
  636. Horn-Ross PL, Canchola AJ, Bernstein L, Neuhausen SL, Nelson DO, Reynolds P. Lifetime body size and estrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer risk in the California Teachers Study cohort. Breast Cancer Res. 18(1):132, 2016.
  637. Must A, Jacques PF, Dallal GE, Bajema CJ, Dietz WH. Long-term morbidity and mortality of overweight adolescents. A follow-up of the Harvard Growth Study of 1922 to 1935. N Engl J Med. 327(19):1350-5, 1992.
  638. Liu Y, Colditz GA, Cotterchio M, Boucher BA, Kreiger N. Adolescent dietary fiber, vegetable fat, vegetable protein, and nut intakes and breast cancer risk. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 145(2):461-70, 2014.
  639. Wu AH, Wan P, Hankin J, Tseng CC, Yu MC, Pike MC. Adolescent and adult soy intake and risk of breast cancer in Asian-Americans. Carcinogenesis. 23(9):1491-6, 2002.
  640. Korde LA, Wu AH, Fears T, et al. Childhood soy intake and breast cancer risk in Asian American women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 18(4):1050-9, 2009.
  641. Liu Y, Colditz GA, Rosner B, et al. Alcohol intake between menarche and first pregnancy: a prospective study of breast cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst. 105(20):1571-8, 2013.
  642. Romieu I, Scoccianti C, Chajès V, et al. Alcohol intake and breast cancer in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Int J Cancer. 137(8):1921-30, 2015.
  643. Jayasekara H, MacInnis RJ, Hodge AM, et al. Is breast cancer risk associated with alcohol intake before first full-term pregnancy? Cancer Causes Control. 27(9):1167-74, 2016.
  644. Jain S and Gradishar WJ. Chapter 61: Male breast cancer. In Harris JR, Lippman ME, Morrow M, Osborne CK. Diseases of the Breast, 5th edition. Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, 2014.
  645. Gradishar WJ and Ruddy KJ. Breast cancer in men. In: Chagpar AB, Hayes DF and Vora SR, eds. UpToDate. Waltham, MA, UpToDate, 2022.
  646. National Cancer Institute. Cell phones and cancer risk. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/radiation/cell-phones-fact-sheet, 2022.
  647. Visvanathan K, Mondul AM, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, et al. Circulating vitamin D and breast cancer risk: an international pooling project of 17 cohorts. Eur J Epidemiol. 38(1):11-29, 2023.
  648. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast Cancer – 5-year age-adjusted incidence rates, 2016-2020, by race/ethnicity, female, all ages, all stages. Accessed on April 21, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  649. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer risk from birth over time, by race/ethnicity, female, risk of being diagnosed with breast cancer (2017-2019). Accessed on April 26, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  650. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer – SEER 5-year age-adjusted incidence rates, 2016-2020, by race/ethnicity, female, all ages, all stages. Accessed on April 26, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  651. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer – recent trends in SEER age-adjusted incidence rates, 2000-2020, by race/ethnicity, observed SEER incidence rates, female, ages 15-39, all stages. Accessed on April 26, 2023. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2023.
  652. National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN). NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: Genetic/familial high-risk assessment—breast, ovarian and pancreatic cancer. Version 2.2024. http://www.nccn.org, 2023.
  653. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer- Breast cancer median age at diagnosis, by race/ethnicity, female. Accessed on January 11, 2024. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2024.
  654. Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute. SEER*Explorer. Breast cancer- Breast cancer median age at diagnosis, by race/ethnicity, male. Accessed on January 11, 2024. https://seer.cancer.gov/explorer/, 2024.

Updated 01/23/24

TOOLS & RESOURCES